BRIEF DEFINITIONS OF GREEK GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Koine Greek, often called Hellenistic Greek, was the
common language of the Mediterranean world beginning with Alexander the Great’s
(336-323 b.c..) conquest and lasting about eight hundred
years (300 b.c.–a.d. 500). It
was not just a simplified, classical Greek, but in many ways a newer form of
Greek that became the second language of the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean
world.

The Greek of the New Testament was unique in some ways
because its users, except Luke and the author of Hebrews, probably used Aramaic
as their primary language. Therefore, their writing was influenced by the idioms
and structural forms of Aramaic. Also, they read and quoted the Septuagint
(Greek translation of the OT) which was also written in Koine Greek. But the
Septuagint was also written by Jewish scholars whose mother tongue was not
Greek.

This serves as a reminder that we cannot push the New
Testament into a tight grammatical structure. It is unique and yet has much in
common with (1) the Septuagint; (2) Jewish writings such as those of Josephus;
and (3) the papyri found in Egypt. How then do we approach a grammatical
analysis of the New Testament?

The grammatical features of Koine Greek and New
Testament Koine Greek are fluid. In many ways it was a time of simplification of
grammar. Context will be our major guide. Words only have meaning in a larger
context, therefore, grammatical structure can only be understood in light of (1)
a particular author’s style; and (2) a particular context. No conclusive
definitions of Greek forms and structures are possible.

Koine Greek was primarily a verbal language. Often the
key to interpretation is the type and form of the verbals.
In most main clauses the verb
will occur first, showing its preeminence. In analyzing the Greek
verb three pieces of information must be noted: (1) the basic emphasis of
the tense, voice and mood
(accidence or morphology); (2) the basic meaning of the particular
verb (lexicography); and (3) the flow of the context (syntax).

I. TENSE

A. Tense or aspect involves the
relationship of the verbs to completed action or
incomplete action. This is often called “perfective” and
“imperfective.”

1. Perfective
tenses focus on the occurrence of an action. No further information is
given except that something happened! Its start, continuation or culmination is
not addressed.

2. Imperfective
tenses focus on the continuing process of an action. It can be described
in terms of linear action, durative action, progressive action, etc.

B. Tenses can be categorized by how the
author sees the action as progressing

1. It occurred =
aorist

2. It occurred and the results
abide = perfect

3. It was occurring in the
past and the results were abiding, but not now = pluperfect

4. It is occurring =
present

5. It was occurring =
imperfect

6. It will occur =
future

A concrete example of how these tenses help in
interpretation would be the term “save.” It was used in several different tenses
to show both its process and culmination:

1. aorist
– “saved” (cf. Rom. 8:24)

2. perfect
– “have been saved and the result continues” (cf. Eph. 2:5,8)

3. present
– “being saved” (cf. I Cor. 1:18; 15:2)

4. future
– “shall be saved” (cf. Rom. 5:9, 10; 10:9)

C. In focusing on verb
tenses, interpreters look for the reason the original author chose to
express himself in a certain
tense. The standard “no frills” tense was the
aorist. It was the regular “unspecific,” “unmarked,” or “unflagged”
verb form. It can be used in a wide variety of ways which the context
must specify. It simply was stating that something occurred. The past time
aspect is only intended in the indicative mood. If any
other tense was used, something more specific was being
emphasized. But what?

1. perfect
tense. This speaks of a completed action with abiding results. In some
ways it was a combination of the aorist and
present tenses. Usually the focus is on the abiding results or the
completion of an act (example: Eph. 2:5 & 8, “you have been and continue to be
saved”).

2. pluperfect
tense. This was like the perfect
except the abiding results have ceased. Example: John 18:16 “Peter was standing
at the door outside.”

3. present
tense. This speaks of an incomplete or imperfect action. The focus is
usually on the continuation of the event. Example: I John 3:6 & 9, “Everyone
abiding in Him does not continue sinning.” “Everyone having been begotten of God
does not continue to commit sin.”

4. imperfect
tense. In this tense the relationship to the present tense is analogous to the relationship between the
perfect and the pluperfect. The
imperfect speaks of incomplete action that was occurring but has now
ceased or the beginning of an action in the past. Example: Matt. 3:5, “then all
Jerusalem were continuing to go out to him” or “then all Jerusalem began to go
out to him.”

5. future
tense. This speaks of an action that was usually projected into a future
time frame. It focused on the potential for an occurrence rather than an actual
occurrence. It often speaks of the certainty of the event. Example: Matt. 5:4-9,
“Blessed are. . .they will . . .”

II. VOICE

A. Voice
describes the relationship between the action of the verb
and its subject.

B. Active voice
was the normal, expected, unemphasized way to assert that the subject was
performing the action of the verb.

C. The passive voice
means that the subject was receiving the action of the verb
produced by an outside agent. The outside agent producing the action was
indicated in the Greek NT by the following prepositions
and cases:

1. a personal direct agent by
hupo with the ablative case (cf. Matt.1:22; Acts
22:30).

2. a personal intermediate
agent by dia with the ablative case
(cf. Matt. 1:22).

3. an impersonal agent usually
by en with the instrumental case.

4. sometimes either a personal
or impersonal agent by the instrumental case alone.

D. The middle voice
means that the subject produces the action of the verb
and is also directly involved in the action of the verb.
It is often called the voice of heightened personal interest. This construction
emphasized the subject of the clause or sentence in some way. This construction
is not found in English. It has a wide possibility of meanings and translations
in Greek. Some examples of the form are:

1. reflexive
– the direct action of the subject on itself. Example: Matt. 27:5 “hanged
himself.”

2. intensive
– the subject produces the action for itself. Example: II Cor. 11:14 “Satan
himself masquerades as an angel of light.”

3. reciprocal
– the interplay of two subjects. Example: Matt. 26:4 “they counseled with one
another.”

III. MOOD (or “MODE”)

A. There are four moods
in Koine Greek. They indicate the relation of the verb
to reality, at least within the author’s own mind. The moods
are divided into two broad categories: that which indicated reality (indicative)
and that which indicated potentiality (subjunctive, imperative and optative).

B. The indicative mood
was the normal mood for expressing action that had occurred or was occurring, at
least in the author’s mind. It was the only Greek mood
that expressed a definite time, and even here this aspect was secondary.

C. The subjunctive mood
expressed probable future action. Something had not yet happened, but the
chances were likely that it would. It had much in common with the
future indicative. The difference was that the
subjunctive expresses some degree of doubt. In English this is often
expressed by the terms “could,” “would,” “may,” or “might.”

D. The optative mood
expressed a wish which was theoretically possible. It was considered one step
further from reality than the
subjunctive. The optative
expressed possibility under certain conditions. The optative
was rare in the New Testament. Its most frequent usage is Paul’s famous phrase,
“May it never be” (KJV, “God forbid”), used fifteen times (cf. Rom. 3:4, 6, 31;
6:2, 15; 7:7, 13; 9:14; 11:1, 11; I Cor. 6:15; Gal. 2:17; 3:21; 6:14). Other
examples are found in Luke 1:38, 20:16, Acts 8:20, and I Thess. 3:11.

E. The imperative mood
emphasized a command which was possible, but the emphasis was on the intent of
the speaker. It asserted only volitional possibility and was conditioned on the
choices of another. There was a special use of the imperative
in prayers and 3rd person requests. These commands were found only in the
present
and aorist tenses in the NT.

F. Some grammars categorize
participles as another type of mood. They are
very common in the Greek NT, usually defined as verbal
adjectives. They are translated in conjunction with the main
verb to which they relate. A wide variety was possible in translating
participles. It is best to consult several English translations. The
Bible in Twenty Six Translations published by Baker is a great help here.

G. The aorist active
indicative was the normal or “unmarked” way to record an occurrence. Any
other tense, voice or mood had
some specific interpretive significance that the original author wanted to
communicate.

IV. For the person not familiar with Greek the following study aids will
provide the needed information:

A. Friberg, Barbara and Timothy.
Analytical Greek New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988.

B. Marshall, Alfred. Interlinear
Greek-English New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976.

C. Mounce, William D. The Analytical
Lexicon to the Greek New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993.

D. Summers, Ray. Essentials of New
Testament Greek. Nashville: Broadman, 1950.

E. Academically accredited Koine Greek
correspondence courses are available through Moody Bible Institute in Chicago,
IL.

V. NOUNS

A. Syntactically, nouns
are classified by case. case was
that inflected form of a
noun that showed its relationship to the
verb and other parts of the sentence. In Koine Greek many of the
case functions were indicated by prepositions.
Since the case form was able to identify several
different relationships, the prepositions developed to
give clearer separation to these possible functions.

B. Greek case
are categorized in the following eight ways:

1. The
nominative case was used for naming and it
usually was the subject of the sentence or clause. It
was also used for predicate nouns and
adjectives with the linking verbs “to be” or
“become.”

2. The
genitive case was used for description and usually assigned an attribute
or quality to the word to which it was related. It answered the question, “What
kind?” It was often expressed by the use of the English
preposition “of.”

3. The
ablative case used the same inflected form as the genitive, but it was used to describe separation. It usually denoted
separation from a point in time, space, source, origin or degree. It was often
expressed by the use of the English preposition “from.”

4. The dative
case was used to describe personal interest. This could denote a positive
or negative aspect. Often this was the indirect object.
It was often expressed by the English preposition “to.”

5. The
locative case was the same inflected form as the dative, but it described position or location in space, time or
logical limits. It was often expressed by the English
prepositions “in, on, at, among, during, by, upon, and beside.”

6. The
instrumental case was the same inflected form as the
dative and locative cases. It
expressed means or association. It was often expressed by the English
prepositions, “by” or “with.”

7. The
accusative case was used to describe the conclusion of an action. It
expressed limitation. Its main use was the direct object.
It answered the question, “How far?” or “To what extent?”

8. The
vocative case was used for direct address.

VI. CONJUNCTIONS AND CONNECTORS

A. Greek is a very precise language
because it has so many connectives. They connect thoughts (clauses,
sentences, and paragraphs). They are so
common that their absence (asyndeton) is often exegetically significant. As a
matter of fact, these conjunctions and
connectors
show the direction of the author’s thought. They often are crucial in
determining what exactly he is trying to communicate.

B. Here is a list of some of the
conjunctions and connectors and their meanings
(this information has been gleaned mostly from H. E. Dana and Julius K. Mantey’s
A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament).

1. Time connectors

a. epei, epeidē,
hopote, hōs, hote, hotan (subj.) – “when”

b. heōs –
“while”

c. hotan, epan
(subj.) – “whenever”

d. heōs, achri,
mechri (subj.) – “until”

e. priv (infin.)
– “before”

f. hōs –
“since,” “when,” “as”

2. Logical
connectors

a. Purpose

(1)
hina (subj.), hopōs (subj.),
hōs – “in order that,” “that”

(2)
hōste (articular accusative infinitive) – “that”

(3)
pros (articular accusative infinitive) or eis
(articular accusative infinitive) – “that”

b. Result (there is a
close association between the grammatical forms of purpose and result)

(1)
hōste (infinitive, this is the most common) – “in
order that,” “thus”

(2)
hiva (subj.) – “so that”

(3)
ara -“so”

c. Causal or reason

(1)
gar (cause/effect or reason/conclusion) – “for,” “because”

(2)
dioti, hotiy – “because”

(3)
epei, epeidē, hōs – “since”

(4)
dia (with accusative) and (with articular infin.) – “because”

d. Inferential

(1)
ara, poinun, hōste – “therefore”

(2)
dio (strongest inferential conjunction) – “on which
account,” “wherefore,” “therefore”

(3)
oun – “therefore,” “so,” “then,” “consequently”

(4)
toinoun – “accordingly”

e. Adversative or
contrast

(1)
alla (strong adversative) – “but,” “except”

(2)
de -“but,” “however,” “yet,” “on the other hand”

(3)
kai – “but”

(4)
mentoi, oun – “however”

(5)
plēn – “never-the-less” (mostly in Luke)

(6)
oun – “however”

f. Comparison

(1)
hōs, kathōs (introduce comparative clauses)

(2)
kata (in compounds, katho, kathoti, kathōsper, kathaper)

(3)
hosos (in Hebrews)

(4)
ē– “than”

g. Continuative or
series

(1)
de – “and,” “now”

(2)
kai -“and”

(3)
tei –“and”

(4) hina,
oun – “that”

(5)
oun – “then” (in John)

3. Emphatic usages

a. alla –
“certainty,” “yea,” “in fact”

b. ara –
“indeed,” “certainly,” “really”

c. gar – “but
really,” “certainly,” “indeed”

d. de –
“indeed”

e. ean – “even”

f. kai –
“even,” “indeed,” “really”

g. mentoi –
“indeed”

h. oun –
“really,” “by all means”

VII. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

A. A conditional
sentence is one that contains one or more conditional clauses. This
grammatical structure aids interpretation because it provides the conditions,
reasons or causes why the action of the main verb does
or does not occur. There were four types of conditional
sentences. They move from that which was assumed to be true from the
author’s perspective or for his purpose to that which was only a wish.

B. The first class
conditional sentence expressed action or being which was assumed to be
true from the writer’s perspective or for his purposes even though it was
expressed with an “if.” In several contexts it could be translated “since” (cf.
Matt. 4:3; Rom. 8:31). However, this does not mean to imply that all
first classes are true to reality. Often they were used to make a point
in an argument or to highlight a fallacy (cf. Matt. 12:27).

C. The second class
conditional sentence is often called “contrary to fact.” It states
something that was untrue to reality to make a point. Examples:

1. “If He were really a
prophet which He is not, He would know who and of what character the woman is
who is clinging to Him, but He does not” (Luke 7:39)

2. “If you really believed
Moses, which you do not, you would believe me, which you do not” (John 5:46)

3. “If I were still trying to
be pleasing to men, which I am not, I would not be a slave of Christ at all,
which I am” (Gal. 1:10)

D. The third class
speaks of possible future action. It often assumes the probability of that
action. It usually implies a contingency. The action of the main
verb is contingent on the action in the “if” clause. Examples from I
John: 1:6-10; 2:4,6,9,15,20,21,24,29; 3:21; 4:20; 5:14,16.

E. The fourth class
is the farthest removed from possibility. It is rare in the NT. As a matter of
fact, there is no complete
fourth class conditional sentence in which both parts of
the condition fit the definition. An example of a partial
fourth class is the opening clause in I Pet. 3:14. An example of a
partial fourth class in the concluding clause is Acts 8:31.

VIII. PROHIBITIONS

A. The present
imperative with mē particle often (but not
exclusively) has the emphasis of stopping an act already in process. Some
examples: “stop storing up your riches on earth. . .” (Matt. 6:19); “stop
worrying about your life. . .” (Matt. 6:25); “stop offering to sin the parts of
your bodies as instruments of wrongdoing. . .” (Rom. 6:13); “you must stop
offending the Holy Spirit of God. . .” (Eph. 4:30); and “stop getting drunk on
wine. . .” (5:18).

B. The aorist
subjunctive with mē particle has the emphasis of
“do not even begin or start an act.” Some examples: “Do not even begin to
suppose that. . .” (Matt. 5:17); “never start to worry. . .” (Matt. 6:31); “you
must never be ashamed. . .” (II Tim. 1:8).

C. The double negative
with the subjunctive mood is a very emphatic negation.
“Never, no never” or “not under any circumstance.” Some examples: “he will
never, no never experience death” (John 8:51); “I will never, no, never. . .” (I
Cor. 8:13).

IX. THE ARTICLE

A. In Koine Greek the
definite article “the” had a use similar to English. Its basic function
was that of “a pointer,” a way to draw attention to a word, name or phrase. The
use varies from author to author in the New Testament. The
definite article could also function

1. as a contrasting device
like a demonstrative pronoun;

2. as a sign to refer to a
previously introduced subject or person;

3. as a way to identify the
subject in a sentence with a linking
verb. Examples: “God is Spirit” (John 4:24); “God is
light” (I John 1:5); “God is love” (4:8,16).

B. Koine Greek did not have an
indefinite article like the English “a” or “an.” The absence of the
definite article could mean

1. a focus on the
characteristics or quality of something

2. a focus on the category of
something

C. The NT authors varied widely as to
how the article was employed.

X. WAYS OF SHOWING EMPHASIS IN THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

A. The techniques for showing emphasis
vary from author to author in the New Testament. The most consistent and formal
writers were Luke and the author of Hebrews.

B. We have stated earlier that the
aorist active indicative was standard and unmarked for emphasis, but any
other tense, voice, or mood had interpretive
significance. This is not to imply that the aorist active
indicative was not often used in a significant grammatical sense.
(Example: Rom. 6:10 [twice]).

C. Word order in Koine Greek

1. Koine Greek was an
inflected language which was not dependent, like English, on word order.
Therefore, the author could vary the normal expected order to show

a. what the author
wanted to emphasize to the reader

b. what the author
thought would be surprising to the reader

c. what the author
felt deeply about

2. The normal word order in
Greek is still an unsettled issue. However, the supposed normal order is:

a. for linking verbs

(1)
verb

(2)
subject

(3)
complement

b. for
transitive verbs

(1)
verb

(2)
subject

(3)
object

(4)
indirect object

(5)
prepositional phrase

c. for
noun phrases

(1)
noun

(2)
modifier

(3)
prepositional phrase

3. Word order can be an
extremely important exegetical point. Examples:

a.”right hand they gave to me and Barnabas of fellowship.” The phrase “right
hand of fellowship” is split and fronted to show its significance (Gal. 2:9).

b. “with Christ” was
placed first. His death was central (Gal. 2:20).

c. “It was bit by bit
and in many different ways” (Heb. 1:1) was placed first. It was how God revealed
Himself that was being contrasted, not the fact of revelation.

D. Usually some degree of emphasis was
shown by

1. The repetition of the
pronoun which was already present in the
verb’s inflected form. Example: “I, myself, will surely
be with you. . .” (Matt. 28:20).

2. The absence of an expected
conjunction, or other connecting device between words, phrases, clauses
or sentences. This is called an asyndeton (“not bound”). The connecting device
was expected, so its absence would draw attention. Examples:

a. The Beatitudes,
Matt. 5:3ff (emphasized the list)

b. John 14:1 (new
topic)

c. Romans 9:1 (new
section)

d. II Cor. 12:20
(emphasize the list)

3. The repetition of words or
phrases present in a given context. Examples: “to the praise of His glory” (Eph.
1:6, 12 & 14). This phrase was used to show the work of each person of the
Trinity.

4. The use of an idiom or word
(sound) play between terms

a. euphemisms –
substitute words for taboo subjects, like “sleep” for death (John 11:11-14) or
“feet” for male genitalia (Ruth 3:7-8; I Sam. 24:3).

b. circumlocutions –
substitute words for God’s name, like “Kingdom of heaven” (Matt. 3:2) or “a
voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17).

c. figures
of speech

(1) impossible
exaggerations (Matt. 3:9; 5:29-30; 19:24)

(2) mild over
statements (Matt. 3:5; Acts 2:36)

(3) personifications
(I Cor. 15:55)

(4) irony (Gal.
5:12)

(5) poetic
passages (Phil. 2:6-11)

(6) sound plays
between words

(a)
“church”

(i)
“church” (Eph. 3:21)

(ii) “calling” (Eph. 4:1,4)

(iii)”called” (Eph. 4:1,4)

(b)
“free”

(i)
“free woman” (Gal. 4:31)

(ii)”freedom” (Gal. 5:1)

(iii)”free” (Gal. 5:1)

d. idiomatic language
– language which is usually cultural and language specific:

(1) figurative
use of “food” (John 4:31-34)

(2) figurative
use of “Temple” (John 2:19; Matt. 26:61)

(3) Hebrew idiom
of compassion, “hate” (Gen. 29:31; Deut. 21:15; Luke 14:36; John 12:25; Rom.
9:13)

(4) “All” versus
“many.’ Compare Isa. 53:6 (“all”) with 53:11 & 12 (“many”). The terms are
synonymous as Rom. 5:18 and 19 show.

5. The use of a full
linguistic phrase instead of a single word. Example: “The Lord Jesus Christ.”

6. The special use of autos

a. when with the article (attributive position) it was translated “same.”

b. when without the article (predicate position) it was translated as an
intensive reflexive pronoun-“himself,” “herself,” or “itself.”

E. The non-Greek reading Bible student
can identify emphasis in several ways:

1. The use of an analytical
lexicon and interlinear Greek/English text.

2. The comparison of English
translations, particularly from the differing theories of translations. Example:
comparing a “word-for-word” translation (KJV, NKJV, ASV, NASB, RSV, NRSV) with a
“dynamic equivalent” (Williams, NIV, NEB, REB, JB, NJB, TEV). A good help here
would be The Bible in Twenty-Six Translations published by Baker.

3. The use of The
Emphasized Bible by Joseph Bryant Rotherham (Kregel, 1994).

4. The use of a very literal
translation

a. The American
Standard Version of 1901

b. Young’s Literal
Translation of the Bible by Robert Young (Guardian Press, 1976).

The study of grammar is tedious but necessary for proper
interpretation. These brief definitions, comments and examples are meant to
encourage and equip non-Greek reading persons to use the grammatical notes
provided in this volume. Surely these definitions are oversimplified. They
should not be used in a dogmatic, inflexible manner, but as stepping stones
toward a greater understanding of New Testament syntax. Hopefully these
definitions will also enable readers to understand the comments of other study
aids such as technical commentaries on the New Testament.

We must be able to verify our interpretation based on
items of information found in the texts of the Bible. Grammar is one of the most
helpful of these items; other items would include historical setting, literary
context, contemporary word usage, and parallel passages.