INTRODUCTION TO MATTHEW

I. OPENING STATEMENT

A. Until the time of the Renaissance/Reformation the Gospel of Matthew was
thought to have been the first Gospel written (and still is by the Roman
Catholic church).

B. It was the most copied, most quoted, most used Gospel in catechism and in
the early liturgy by the church for the first two centuries.

C. William Barclay in The First Three Gospels, p. 19, said “When we
turn to Matthew, we turn to the book which may well be called the most important
single document of the Christian faith, for in it we have the fullest and the
most systematic account of the life and the teachings of Jesus.”

This is because it developed the teachings of Jesus in a thematic way. It was
used to teach new converts (both Jew and Gentile) about the life and message of
Jesus of Nazareth, the Christ.

D. It forms a logical bridge between the Old and New Covenants, between
Jewish believers and Gentile believers. It used the Old Testament in a
promise/fulfillment format as did the early sermons of Acts which are called the
kerygma. The Old Testament is quoted over fifty times and alluded to many
more. Also, many of the titles and analogies used of YHWH are applied to Jesus.

E. Therefore, the purposes of The Gospel According to Matthew were evangelism
and discipleship, the twin aspects of the Great Commission (28:19-20).

1. They were to help convert Jews by informing them of Jesus’ life and
teachings,

2. They were to disciple both believing Jews and Gentiles into how they
should live as Christians.

II. AUTHORSHIP

A. Although the earliest copies of the Greek NT ( A.D. 200-400) have the
designation “according to Matthew,” the book itself is anonymous.

B. The uniform tradition of the early church is that Matthew (also known as
Levi, cf. Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27,29), tax-collector (cf. Matt. 9:9; 10:3) and
disciple of Jesus, wrote the Gospel.

C. Matthew, Mark and Luke are strikingly similar:

1. they often agree in form on OT quotes that are not found in the Masoretic
text nor the Septuagint,

2. they often quote Jesus in unusual grammatical constructions, even using
rare Greek words,

3. they often use phrases and even sentences of exactly the same Greek words,

4. obviously literary borrowing has occurred.

D. Several theories have been advanced concerning the relationship between
Matthew, Mark and Luke (the Synoptic Gospels).

1. The uniform tradition of the early church is that Matthew (Levi), the
tax-collector and disciple of Jesus, wrote the Gospel. The Apostle Matthew was
unanimously affirmed to be the author until the Renaissance/Reformation.

2. Around 1776 A. E. Lessing (and later Gieseler in 1818), theorized an oral
stage in the development of the Synoptic (“to see together”) Gospels. He
asserted that they were all dependent on earlier oral traditions which the
writers modified for their own target audiences:

a. Matthew: Jews

b. Mark: Romans

c. Luke: Gentiles

Each was related to a separate geographical center of Christianity

a. Matthew: Antioch, Syria

b. Mark: Rome, Italy

c. Luke: Caesarea by the Sea, Palestine

d. John: Ephesus, Asia Minor

3. In the early nineteenth century J. J. Griesbach theorized that Matthew and
Luke wrote separate accounts of Jesus’ life, completely independent of each
other. Mark wrote a brief Gospel trying to mediate between these other two
accounts.

4. In the early twentieth century H. J. Holtzmann theorized that Mark was the
first written Gospel and that both Matthew and Luke used his Gospel structure
plus a separation document containing the sayings of Jesus called Q (German
quelle or “source”). This was labeled the “two source” theory (also endorsed
by Fredrick Schleiermacher in 1832).

5. Later B. H. Streeter theorized a modified “two source” theory called “the
four source” theory which posited a “proto Luke” plus Mark plus Q.

6. The above theories of the formation of the Synoptic Gospels are only
speculation. There is no historical nor actual manuscript evidence of either a
“Q” source or a “proto Luke.”

Modern scholarship simply does not know how the Gospels developed nor who
wrote them (the same is true of the OT Law and former Prophets). However, this
lack of information does not affect the Church’s view of their inspiration or
trustworthiness as historical as well as faith documents.

7. There are obvious similarities in structure and wording between the
Synoptics, but there are also many arresting differences. Differences are common
in eye witness accounts. The early church was not bothered by the divergence of
these three eyewitness accounts of Jesus’ life.

It may be that the target audience, the style of the author and the different
languages involved (Aramaic and Greek) account for the seeming discrepancies. It
must be stated that these inspired writers, editors or compilers had the freedom
to select, arrange, adapt and summarize the events and teachings of Jesus’ life
(cf. How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth by Fee and Stuart, pp.
113-148).

E. There is a tradition of the early church from Papias, the bishop of
Hierapolis (A.D. 130), which was recorded in Eusebius’
Historical Ecclesiasticus 3:39:16, that Matthew wrote his Gospel in
Aramaic. However, modern scholarship has rejected this tradition because

1. the Greek of Matthew does not have the characteristics of a translation
from Aramaic

2. there are Greek word plays (cf. 6:16; 21:41; 24:30)

3. most of the OT quotes are from the Septuagint (LXX) not the Masoretic
Hebrew Texts

It is possible that 10:3 is a hint at Matthew’s authorship. It adds
“tax-gatherer” after his name. This self-deprecating comment is not found in
Mark. Matthew also was not a well known person in the NT or early church. Why
would so much tradition have developed around his name and this first apostolic
Gospel?

III. DATE

A. In many ways the date of the Gospel is linked to the Synoptic problem.
Which Gospel was written first and who borrowed from whom?

1. Eusebius, in Historical Ecclesiasticus, 3:39:15 said Matthew used
Mark as a structural guide.

2. Augustine, however, called Mark “a camp follower” and an abbreviator of
Matthew.

B. The best approach would be to try to set the limits of possible dates

1. It must have been written before A.D. 96 or 115

a. Clement of Rome ( A.D. 96) made an allusion to Matthew’s Gospel in his
letter to the Corinthians.

b. Ignatius ( A.D. 110-115), the Bishop of Antioch, quoted Matthew 3:15 in
his letter To the Smyrneans, 1:1

2. The more difficult question is how early could it have been written?

a. obviously after the events recorded which would be in the mid 30’s

b. some time would have had to pass for its need, composition, and
circulation

c. what is chapter 24’s relationship to the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D.
70? Parts of Matthew imply the sacrificial system was still in place (5:23-24;
12:5-7; 17:24-27; 26:60-61). This means a date before A.D. 70

d. if Matthew and Mark were written during the time of Paul’s ministry (A.D.
48-68) why does he never refer to them? Irenaeus is quoted by Eusebius in
Historical Ecclesiasticus 5:8:2, to say that Matthew wrote his Gospel while
Peter and Paul were in Rome. Peter and Paul were both killed during Nero’s reign
which ended in A.D. 68

e. modern scholarship’s earliest guess is A.D. 50

C. Many scholars believe that the four Gospels relate more to geographical
centers of Christianity than to the traditional authors. Matthew may have been
written from Antioch of Syria, because of its Jewish/Gentile church issues,
possibly about A.D. 60 or at least before A.D. 70.

IV. RECIPIENTS

A. As the authorship and date of the Gospel are uncertain, so are the
recipients. It seems best to relate it to both believing Jews and Gentiles. The
Church at Antioch of Syria of the first century fits this profile best.

B. Origen is quoted by Eusebius in Historical Ecclesiasticus 6:25:4,
that it was written for Jewish believers.

V. STRUCTURAL OUTLINE

A. How is this Gospel structured? One can best find the intent of the
original inspired author by analyzing the structure of the entire book.

B. Scholarship has suggested several structures

1. the geographical movements of Jesus

a. Galilee

b. north of Galilee

c. Perea and Judea (while traveling to Jerusalem)

d. in Jerusalem

2. Matthew’s five thematic units. They are discernable by the recurrent
phrase “And when Jesus had finished these things” (cf. 7:28; 11:1; 13:53; 19:1;
26:1). Many scholars see these five units as Matthew’s attempt to portray Jesus
as the “new Moses,” with each unit being analogous to one of the five books of
Moses (Gen., Exod., Lev., Num. Deut.)

a. a chiastic structure which alternates between narrative and discourse
sections

b. a theological/biographical format which picks up on the recurrent phrase
“from that time on Jesus

began. . .” (cf. 4:17; 16:21) thereby dividing the book into three sections
(1:1-4:16; 4:17-16:20; and 16:21-28:29)

c. Matthew’s emphasis on OT predictive passages by use of the key term
“fulfillment” (cf. 1:22; 2:15,17,23; 4:14; 8:17; 12:17; 13:35; 21:4; 27:9 and
27:35)

C. The “gospels” are a unique literary genre. They are not biographical. They
are not historical narrative. They are a selective theological, highly
structured literary type. Each of the Gospel writers chose from the life events
and teachings of Jesus to uniquely present Him to their target audience. The
Gospels were evangelistic tracts.

VI. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY
IDENTIFY

1. Messiah, 1:1

2. Virgin, 1:23,25

3. Immanuel, 1:23

4. Magi, 2:1

5. Nazarene, 2:23

6. Repent, 3:2

7. Confess, 3:6

8. Pharisees, 3:7

9. Sadducees, 3:7

10. “remove His sandals,” 3:11

11. “This is My beloved Son,” 3:17

12. “pinnacle of the temple,” 4:5

13. “the Law or the Prophets,” 5:17

14. “certificate of divorce,” 5:31

15. “the footstool of His feet,” 5:35

16. synagogue, 6:2

17. “the narrow gate,” 7:13

18. scribe, 8:19

19. “demon-possessed,” 8:28

20. “reclining at the table,” 9:10

21. wineskins, 9:17

22. flute-players, 9:23

23. apostles, 10:2

24. yoke, 11:29,30

25. “this age or the age to come,” 12:32

26. parable, 13:3

27. tares, 13:25

28. “the tradition of the elders,” 15:2

29. hades, 16:18

30. transfigured, 17:2

31. lunatic, 17:15

32. “the two-drachma tax,” 17:24

33. denarius, 20:2,9

34. Hosanna literally “save us now,” Aramaic, “royal power to” , 21:9

35. “birth pangs,” 24:8

36. “abomination of desolation” 26:64

37. talent, 25:20

38. “the whole Council,” 26:59

39. “coming on the clouds of heaven,” 26:64

40. “Field of Blood,” 27:8

41. Praetorium, 27:27

42. “Golgotha,” 27:33

43. “but some were doubtful,” 28:17

VII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. Zerubbabel, 1:12

2. Herod, 2:13

3. Son of David, 9:27

4. Son of Man, 10:23

5. My Servant, 12:18

6. Beelzebul, 12:24

7. Herodias, 14:6

8. Simon Barjona, 16:17

9. “chief priests and elders,” 21:23

10. Herodians, 22:16

11. Rabbi, 23:7

12. Caiaphas, 26:3

13. Pilate, 27:2

14. Barabbas, 27:16

15. Mary Magdalene, 27:56

16. Joseph of Arimathea, 27:57

VIII. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Bethlehem, 2:1

2. wilderness of Judea, 3:1

3. Galilee, 3:13

4. Nazareth, 4:13

5. Capernaum, 4:13

6. Sodom and Gomorrah, 10:15

7. Bethsaida, 11:21

8. Sidon, 15:21

9. Caesarea Philippi, 16:13

10. Mount of Olives, 21:2

11. Gethsemane, 26:36

IX. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Why do the genealogies of Matthew and Luke differ?

2. What do Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth have in common?

3. What do Elijah and John the Baptist have in common?

4. What is “the kingdom of heaven”?

5. What exactly was Satan tempting Jesus to do in the wilderness?

6. Explain 5:17 in your own words.

7. Explain 5:48 in your own words.

8. Explain 7:6 in your own words.

9. Why is 8:5-13 so unusual and significant?

10. Explain 10:38 in your own words.

11. Explain 10:19 in your own words.

12. Why did Jesus heal on the Sabbath?

13. What is blasphemy against the Spirit? (12:31-32)

14. How is germination related to fruit-bearing in the parable of the sower?
(13)

15. Explain 13:44 in your own words.

16. Explain 15:11 in your own words.

17. Explain 16:20 in your own words.

18. Explain 18:8 in your own words.

19. Does every believer have a guardian angel?

20. Explain 19:17 in relation to Jesus being the Son of God.

21. Explain 21:18-19 in your own words.

22. Why did Jesus speak so harshly to the scribes and Pharisees in chapter
23?

23. What is the significance of 24:36?

INTRODUCTION TO MARK

I. OPENING STATEMENT

A. The ancient church usually bypassed copying, studying, and teaching Mark
in preference to Matthew and Luke because they saw Mark as a “reader’s digest”
version (i.e. abridged gospel), a view which is specifically stated later by
Augustine.

B. Mark is not often quoted by the early Greek church fathers or the second
century apologists (defenders of the faith).

C. Since the rise of the modern historical-grammatical approach to biblical
interpretation, the Gospel of Mark has taken on new significance because it is
viewed as the first written Gospel. Both Matthew and Luke use it in their
presentations of Jesus’ life and significance. Thereby Mark becomes the
foundational document of the church, the first official account of Jesus’ life.

II. GENRE

A. The Gospels are not modern biographies or histories. They are selective
theological writings used to introduce Jesus to different audiences and bring
them to faith in Him. They are “good news” accounts of Jesus’ life for the
purpose of evangelism (cf. John 20:30-31).

B. Mark addresses four distinct historical settings and four theological
purposes

1. the life and teachings of Jesus

2. the life and ministry of Peter

3. the needs of the early church

4. the evangelistic purpose of John Mark

C. The four Gospels are unique in Near Eastern and Greco-Roman literature.
The inspired authors had the Spirit-led task of selecting Jesus’ teachings and
actions which clearly revealed His character and/or purpose.

They arranged these words and actions in different ways. One example would be
in comparing Matthew’s Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5-7) with Luke’s Sermon on the
Plain. It becomes obvious that Matthew tended to collect all of Jesus’ teachings
into one long sermon, while Luke spread these same teachings throughout his
Gospel. This same thing could be said about Matthew putting Jesus’ miracles
together, while Luke spreads them throughout his Gospel.

This implies the Gospel writers’ ability not only to select and arrange
Jesus’ teachings, but also to adapt them for their own theological purposes
(read Fee and Stuart’s How to Read the Bible For All Its Worth, pp.
113-134). When reading the Gospels one must continue to ask what theological
point these writers are trying to make. Why include this particular event,
miracle, lesson here?

D. Mark’s Gospel is a good example of Koine Greek as a second language of the
people of the Mediterranean world. Mark’s mother tongue was Aramaic (as was
Jesus’ and all Jews in first century Palestine). This Semitic flavor is
characteristic of Mark’s Gospel.

III. AUTHORSHIP

A. John Mark has traditionally been identified with the Apostle Peter in
writing this Gospel. The work itself (like all the Gospels) is anonymous.

B. Another evidence of Peter’s eyewitness account is the fact that Mark does
not record three special events in which Peter was personally involved.

1. his walking on water (cf. Matt. 14:28-33)

2. his being the spokesperson at Caesarea Philippi for the faith of the
Twelve (cf. Matt. 16:13-20), in Mark only 8:27-30 and the “on this rock” and
“keys of the kingdom” passages are omitted.

3. his procurement of the temple tax for himself and Jesus (cf. Matt.
17:24-27)

Perhaps Peter’s modesty motivated him not to emphasize these events in his
sermons.

C. Early church tradition

1. I Clements, written from Rome about A.D. 95, alludes to Mark (as does
Shepherd of Hermes).

2. Papias, the bishop of Hierapolis (about A.D.. 130), wrote
Interpretation of the Lord’s Sayings, which is quoted by Eusebius (A.D.
275-339) in his Ecclesiastical History
3.39.15. He asserts that Mark was Peter’s interpreter who recorded accurately,
but not chronologically, Peter’s memories of Jesus. Apparently Mark took and
adapted Peter’s sermons and organized them into a Gospel presentation. Papias
claims to have received this information from “the elder,” which could refer to
the Apostle John.

3. Justin Martyr (A.D.. 150), in quoting Mark 3:17, adds that it comes from
Peter’s memory.

4. The Anti-Marcionite Prologue to Mark, written about A.D.. 180, identifies
Peter as the eyewitness of Mark’s Gospel. It also states that Mark wrote the
Gospel from Italy after Peter’s death (traditionally in Rome around A.D.. 65).

5. Irenaeus, writing about A.D.. 180, mentions John Mark as Peter’s
interpreter and compiler of his memoirs after his death (cf. Contra Haereses
3:1:2).

6. Clement of Alexandria (A.D.. 195) asserts that those who heard Peter
preach in Rome asked Mark to record these sermons.

7. The Muratorian Fragment (i.e. canon), written about A.D.. 200 from Rome,
although the text is incomplete, seems to affirm John Mark’s recording Peter’s
sermons.

8. Tertullian (A.D.. 200) in Against Marcion (4:5) says Mark published
Peter’s memories.

9. In The Expositor’s Bible Commentary Vol. 8, p. 606, Walter Wessel
makes the interesting comment that the above early church traditions are from
geographically diverse church centers

a. Papias from Asia Minor

b. Anti-Marcion Prologue and the Muratorian Fragment both from Rome

c. Irenaeus (cf. Adv. Haer. 3.1.1) from Lyons in France. Irenaeus’
tradition is also found in Tertullian (cf.
Adv. Marc. 4.5) from north Africa and Clement of Alexandria, Egypt (cf.
Hypotyposeis 6 quoted by Eusebius,
Eccl. His. 2.15.1-2; 3.24.5-8; 6:14:6-7). This geographical diversity
gives credence to its trustworthiness because of the tradition’s wide acceptance
in early Christianity.

10. According to Eusebius’ Eccl. His. 4:25, Origen (A.D.. 230) in
Commentary on Matthew (there is no known commentary on Mark by anyone until
the fifth century) says Mark wrote the Gospel as Peter explained it to him.

11. Eusebius himself discusses the Gospel of Mark in Eccl. His. 2.15
and says Mark recorded Peter’s sermons at the behest of those who heard them so
that they could be read in all the churches. Eusebius bases this tradition on
the writings of Clement of Alexandria.

D. What do we know about John Mark

1. His mother was a well known believer in Jerusalem in whose house the
church met (possibly the night of the Lord’s Supper, cf. Mark 14:14-15; Acts
1:13-14; Acts 12:12). He was possibly the unnamed man who fled from Gethsemane
(Mark 14:51-52).

2. He accompanied his uncle Barnabas (cf. Col. 4:10) and Paul back to Antioch
from Jerusalem (Acts 12:25).

3. He was a companion of Barnabas and Paul on the first missionary journey
(Acts 13:5), but returned home suddenly (Acts 13:13).

4. Later Barnabas wanted to take Mark on a second missionary journey, but
this caused a terrible disagreement between Barnabas and Paul (Acts 15:37-40).

5. He was later reunited with Paul and became a friend and co-worker (Col.
4:10; II Tim. 4:11; Philemon 24).

6. He was a companion and co-worker with Peter (I Pet. 5:13), possibly in
Rome.

E. Mark’s personal knowledge of the life of Jesus seems confirmed by
14:51-52, where a man flees naked from the garden of Gethsemane just after
Jesus’ arrest. This unusual and totally unexpected detail seems to reflect
Mark’s personal experience.

IV. DATE

A. The Gospel is the eyewitness account and interpretation of Jesus’ life,
actions, and teachings, apparently taken from Peter’s sermons. They were
compiled and distributed after his death, so says the Anti-Marcionite Prologue
and Irenaeus (who also adds after the death of Paul). Both Peter and Paul were
martyred under Nero (A.D. 54-68) in Rome (church tradition). The exact dates are
uncertain, but if true, then probably the date of Mark was in the mid sixties.

B. It is possible that the Anti-Marcionite Prologue and Irenaeus do not refer
to Peter’s death, but his departure (i.e. exodus) from Rome. There is some
traditional evidence (i.e. Justin and Hippolytus) that Peter visited Rome during
the reign of Claudius (A.D.. 41 to 54), (Eusebius’ Eccl. His.
2.14.6).

C. It seems that Luke concludes Acts with Paul still in prison in the early
sixties. If it is true that Luke used Mark in his Gospel, then it must have been
written before Acts and, therefore, earlier than the early sixties.

D. The authorship and date of Mark does not in any way affect the
historical/theological/evangelistic truths of this (or any) Gospel. Jesus, not
the human author, is the key figure!

E. It is surprising that none of the Gospels (even John, written A.D.. 95-96)
refers or alludes to the destruction of Jerusalem (cf. Matt. 24; Mark 13; Luke
21) in A.D.. 70 by the Roman general, later Emperor, Titus. Mark was probably
written before this event. It is even possible that Matthew and Luke were
written before this major judgment on Judaism. It simply must be stated that the
exact dates for the composition of the Synoptic Gospels are uncertain at this
time (as is their literary relationship to one another).

V. RECIPIENTS

A. Mark is connected to Rome by several early church writers

1. I Peter 5:13

2. Anti-Marcionite Prologue (Italy)

3. Irenaeus (Rome, cf. Adv. Haer. 3.1.2)

4. Clement of Alexandria (Rome cf. Eusebius Eccl. Hist. 4.14.6-7;
6.14.5-7)

B. Mark does not specifically state his purposes in writing the Gospel. There
have been several theories.

1. an evangelistic tract (cf. 1:1) written specifically to Romans (cf. 1:15;
10:45)

a. Jewish elements interpreted (cf. 7:3-4; 14:12; 15:42)

b. Aramaic words translated (cf. 3:17; 5:41; 7:1,34; 10:46; 14:36; 15:22,34)

c. use of many Latin words (cf. executioner, 6:27; sextanus, 7:4; census,
12:14; quadrans, 12:42; praetorium, 15:16; centurio, 15:39; flagellare, 15:42)

d. inclusive language in relation to Jesus

(1) inclusive language relating to those in Palestine (cf. 1:5,28,33,39;
2:13; 4:1; 6:33,39,41,55)

(2) inclusive language relating to all people (cf. 13:10)

2. persecution following the fire in Rome in A.D.. 64, which Nero blamed on
the Christians, initiated a terrible wave of persecution towards believers. Mark
often mentions persecution (cf. Jesus’ suffering 8:31; 9:39; 10:33-34,45 and His
followers’ suffering 8:34-38; 10:21,30,35-44).

3. the delayed Second Coming

4. the death of eyewitnesses to Jesus, especially the Apostles

5. the rise of heresies within the wide-spread Christian churches

a. Judaizers (Galatians)

b. Gnostics (I John)

c. the combination of a. and b. (i.e. Colossians and Ephesians; II Pet. 2)

VI. STRUCTURAL OUTLINE

A. Mark is structured in such a way that the last week of Jesus’ life is the
focus of over one-third of the book. The theological significance of the Passion
Week is obvious.

B. Since Mark is, according to early church tradition, taken from Peter’s
sermons, (i.e., probably in Rome) it becomes evident why no birth narratives
were included. Mark begins where Peter’s experience starts, with Jesus as an
adult, and is theologically related to John the Baptist’s message of repentance
and faith in preparation for the work of Messiah.

Peter’s sermons must have used the concepts of “Son of Man” and “Son of God.”
The Gospel reflects Peter’s own theology of Jesus’ person. At first He was a
great teacher and healer, but He became Messiah! This Messiah was not the
expected conquering military general, but a Suffering Servant (cf. Isaiah 53).

C. Mark’s basic geographical structural outline is shared by the other
Synoptic Gospels (i.e., Matthew and Luke)

1. a Galilean Ministry (1:14-6:13)

2. ministry outside Galilee (6:14-8:30)

3. the journey to Jerusalem (8:31-10:52)

4. the last week in the Jerusalem area (11:1-16:8)

D. It is even possible that Mark’s structure emulates the basic pattern of
early Apostolic preaching (i.e., Acts 10:37-43, cf. C. H. Dodd’s New
Testament Studies pp. 1-11). If this is true then the written Gospels are
the culmination of a period of oral traditions (i.e., kerygma). Judaism
considered oral teaching to be superior to written texts.

E. Mark is characterized by a fast moving account (i.e., “immediately,” cf.
1:10) of the life of Jesus. Mark does not record long teaching sessions, but
moves rapidly from event to event (i.e. his repeated use of “immediately”).
Mark’s Gospel reveals Jesus by His actions. However, this fast-paced account is
strewn with vivid eyewitness details (i.e. Peter).

VII. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. a baptism of repentance, 1:4

2. clothes with camel’s hair, 1:5

3. like a dove, 1:10

4. forty days, 1:13

5. the kingdom of God is at hand, 1:15

6. synagogue, 1:23

7. blasphemy, 2:7

8. scribes, 2:6

9. wineskins, 2:22

10. parables, 4:2

11. cloak, 5:27

12. leaven of the Pharisees, 8:15

13. Get behind me, Satan, 8:33

14. transfigured, 9:2

15. hell (Gehenna), 9:47

16. a house of prayer for all nations, 11:17

17. denarius, 12:15

18. the Passover, 14:1

19. nard, 14:3

20. this cup, 14:36

21. the hour has come, 14:41

22. Preparation Day, 15:42

23. first day of the week, 16:2

VIII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. Simon, 1:16

2. Zebedee, 1:20

3. unclean spirit, 1:23

4. Levi, 2:14

5. Abiathar, 2:26

6. the Cananaen, 3:18

7. Beelzebul, 3:22

8. Legion, 5:9

9. King Herod, 6:14

10. Herodias, 6:17

11. Syrophoenician, 7:26

12. Bartimaeus, 10:46

13. Caesar, 12:14

14. abomination of desolation, 13:14

15. the elect, 13:20

16. false Christ, 13:22

17. chief priests, 14:1

18. Abba, 14:36

19. the Council, 14:55

20. Barabbas, 15:7, 11

21. Simon of Cyrene, 15:21

22. Salome, 15:40

23. centurion, 15:45

IX. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Judea, 1:4

2. Jerusalem, 1:4

3. Jordon River, 1:5

4. Nazareth, 1:9

5. Galilee, 1:9

6. Capernaum, 1:21

7. Idumea, 3:8

8. Tyre, 3:8

9. Sidon, 3:8

10. Gerasenes, 5:1

11. Decapolis, 5:20

12. Bethsaida, 6:45

13. Dalmanutha, 8:10

14. Jericho, 10:46

15. Mount of Olives, 11:1

16. Gethsemane, 14:32

X. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What is the baptism with the Spirit? (1:8)

2. What are the requirements of the new covenant? (1:15)

3. Why were Jesus’ hearers amazed at His teachings? (1:22)

4. Why did Jesus not permit the demons to speak? (1:34)

5. Why did Jesus tell those He healed not to tell anyone? (1:43)

6. Why is Jesus accused of blasphemy in chapter 2?

7. Explain 2:17 in your own words.

8. Why did Jesus heal on the Sabbath so often?

9. Why did Jesus teach in parables? (3:10-13)

10. Explain the parable of the soils in your own words (4:3-9).

11. Why could Jesus not do many miracles in His own hometown? (6:4-6)

12. Why did Jesus walk on the water in chapter 6?

13. Explain Isaiah’s prophesy in 7:6-7.

14. Explain 7:15 in your own words.

15. Why does Mark quote Jesus’ Aramaic words?

16. Explain 8:38 in your own words.

17. Why do the Pharisees ask Jesus about divorce in chapter 10?

18. Why were the disciples surprised (10:26) at what Jesus said in 10:25?

19. Why does Jesus ride on a baby donkey in chapter 11?

20. Why did Jesus cleanse the temple in chapter 11?

21. Why is 11:28 such an important question?

22. Why is the parable at the beginning of chapter 12 so powerful and to whom
does it refer?

23. What is the greatest Old Testament commandment?

24. Why is 13:30 so hard to interpret?

25. Explain 15:34 in your own words.

INTRODUCTION TO LUKE

I. OPENING STATEMENTS

A. Luke is the longest Gospel. Luke-Acts (if one rejects Hebrews as Pauline)
contain the largest number of pages by any author in the New Testament and he is
a Gentile and a second-generation Christian!

B. Luke writes the best Koine Greek of all the New Testament writers with
the possible exception of the author of Hebrews. Greek apparently was his mother
tongue. He was also highly educated and a physician (cf. Col. 4:14).

C. Luke accentuates Jesus’ love and care for those whom the Jewish leaders
never even noticed:

1. women (e.g.,. Mary, Elizabeth, Anna, Mary and Martha, etc.)

2. the poor (cf. Luke’s Beatitudes, Luke 6:20-23 and teachings on wealth,
cf. 12:13-21; 16:9-13,19-31)

3. the socially, racially, and religiously ostracized

a. immoral women (cf. 7:36-50)

b. Samaritans (cf. 9:51-56; 10:29-37; 17:11-16)

c. lepers (cf. 17:11-19)

d. tax collectors (cf. 3:12-13; 18:9-14;19:1-10)

e. criminals (cf. 23:35-43)

D. Luke records the eye-witness memories of Mary (i.e. the first two
chapters of Acts) and also possibly her genealogy (i.e. 3:23-38). Luke’s Gospel
records Jesus’ concern for both Jews and Gentiles.

II. AUTHOR

A. Unanimous early church tradition

1. Irenaeus (A. D. 175-195,
Against Heresies, 3.1.1; 3.14.10) says specifically that Luke recorded in a
book the gospel preached by Paul.

2. Anti-Marcion Prologue to Luke (A.D. 175) says Luke was the author of the
Gospel.

3. Tertullian (A.D. 150-160-220/240 in Against Marcion
4:2,3; 4: 5,3) says Luke wrote a digest of Paul’s gospel

4. Muratorian Fragment (A.D. 180-200) names Luke as the author and calls him
a physician companion of Paul. Also it says that he wrote his account by hearsay
(meaning he interviewed eye-witnesses).

5. Origen, quoted by Eusebius from his commentary on Matthew (Hist. Eccl.
6.25.6), asserts Luke’s authorship of the Gospel.

6. Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. 3.4.2,6-7) also affirms Luke’s authorship of
both the Gospel of Luke and Acts.

B. Internal evidence for Luke’s authorship

1. This gospel, like so many biblical works, is anonymous

2. If Luke-Acts is a two volume set, which seems true from the similar
introduction, then the “we” sections of Acts (cf. 16:10-17; 20:5-16; 21:1-18;
27:1-28:16) imply an eye-witness account of Paul’s missionary activity.

3. The introduction to Luke (cf. 1:1-4) states that Luke researched
eye-witness accounts in order to write a historical approach to Jesus’ life
which shows he was a second-generation believer. The Introduction to Luke also
covers Acts. Luke and Acts slightly overlap in time (i.e., post-resurrection
events).

III. LUKE, THE MAN

A. Anti-Marcion Prologue to Luke (A.D. 175)

1. native of Antioch of Syria

2. physician

3. single

4. follower of Paul

5. wrote from Achaia

6. died at age 84 in Boeotia

B. Eusebius of Casarea (A.D. 275-339) in Hist. Eccl.
III.4.2

1. from Antioch

2. missionary companion of Paul

3. wrote the Gospel and Acts

C. Jerome (A.D. 346-420 in Migna XXVI. 18)

1. wrote from Achaia

2. died in Boeotia

D. He was a highly educated man

1. good Koine Greek grammar

2. large vocabulary (esp. medical and nautical)

3. research methods (cf. 1:1-4)

4. he probably was a physician (cf. Col. 4:14). Also, Mark’s negative
comments about physicians in Mark 5:26 is omitted in the parallel in Luke 8:43.
Luke used terms related to medicine, cures, diseases, etc. at least 300 times
(cf. W. K. Hobart,
The Medical Language of Luke, or better, A. Harnack,
Luke the Physician).

E. He was a Gentile

1. Paul seems to make a distinction in his list of helpers in Col. 4:10-11
(i.e., “who are from the circumcision”) and other helpers (i.e. Epaphras, Luke
and Demas).

2. In Acts 1:9 Luke says “in their own language,” referring to Aramaic which
implies it was not his language.

3. In his Gospel Luke omits all the controversies with Pharisees concerning
the Jewish Oral Law.

F. Of all people to be the writer of the longest Gospel and, with Acts, the
writer of most of the New Testament, it is surprising that a little-known,
non-eyewitness (i.e., non-Apostle) Gentile would be chosen. Yet, this is the
unanimous tradition of the early church, no dissenters!

IV. DATE OF WRITING

A. One never knows the exact relationship between (1) Luke’s original
research notes (probably done while Paul was in prison at Caesarea [cf. Acts
23-26 and specifically 24:27]); (2) his final draft (i.e. the Gospel of Luke as
we know it using Mark and “Q”); and (3) circulation of Luke – Acts (to or for
Theophilus).

B. It must be before A.D. 95 if I Clement has quotes or illusions from Acts
and Acts is subsequent to the gospel

1. Acts 13:22 – I Clement, 18:1

2. Acts 20:36 – I Clement, 2:1

C. Acts must be before the destruction of Jerusalem (A.D. 70) by the Roman
general, Titus

1. no mention of the deaths of

1. James the Apostle (A.D. 62)

2. Paul the Apostle (A.D. 64-67)

2. Stephen’s sermon in Acts 7 does not include the destruction of the Temple
which would powerfully illustrate God’s judgment on Judaism

3. Paul visits Jerusalem in Acts 21 and Luke, if he wrote after A.D. 70,
would probably have mentioned the destruction of Jerusalem in his Gospel

D. If Luke used the Gospel of Mark as an outline and/or Luke wrote close to
the time of his research in Palestine, then the late fifties and early sixties
(with Acts written soon after while Paul was still in prison in Rome, A.D.
62-63).

V. RECIPIENTS

A. It is dedicated to Theophilus (cf. Luke 1:1-4; Acts 1:1). There are
several theories as to his identity:

1. a Roman governmental official because Luke calls him “most excellent” in
Luke 1:3 and he uses this same title for Felix (cf. Acts 23:26; 24:3) and Festus
(cf. Acts 26:25)

2. a wealthy patron (Theophilus was a common name among Jews and Greeks) who
helped pay the expenses for writing, copying and distributing Luke and Acts.

3. his name means “God loved,” “lover of God,” therefore it is possibly a
cryptic reference to some Christian

B. Luke’s Gospel is targeted to Gentiles

1. It explains Jewish customs

2. The gospel is for all people (cf. 2:10)

3. It quotes prophecies which refer to “all flesh” (cf. 3:5-6 which is a
quote from Isaiah 40)

4. the genealogy goes back to Adam (i.e., all humans, cf. 3:38)

5. many examples of God’s love for Gentiles (e.g., Luke extends the
boundaries of those welcomed to the Messianic banquet, 13:29)

4. Old Testament examples, announce God’s love for Gentiles (cf. 2:32;
4:25-77)

5. Luke’s Great Commission – forgiveness preached to all nations (cf. 24:47)

VI. PURPOSE(S) OF LUKE’S WRITINGS

A. All of the Gospels were written to target specific groups of people for
the purpose of evangelism (cf. John 20:30-31)

1. Matthew to Jews

2. Mark to Romans

3. Luke to Gentiles

4. John to Gentiles

Luke uniquely mentions the mission of the Seventy (cf. 10:1-24). For the
rabbis, 70 was the number denoting the languages of the world (cf. Gen 10). By
Jesus sending out 70 preachers of the good news, this would communicate that the
gospel is for all people.

B. Other possible purposes

1. to deal with the delayed Second Coming

a. Luke 21 is similar to, but slightly different from Matt. 24, Mark 13,
concerning the imminent return of Christ and the end of the world.

b. However, Luke speaks of world evangelization which takes time for the
church to accomplish (cf. 24:47).

c. Also Luke (like Paul) emphasizes that the Kingdom of God is here now (cf.
10:9, 11; 11:20; 17:21) as well as future.

d. A good summary of the opinions and discussions of biblical scholars can
be seen in The Anchor Bible, vol. 28, pp. 231-235.

2. to explain Christianity to Roman governmental officials (as does Acts)

a. title “most excellent” in introduction

b. Luke 23 has Pilate saying three times, “I find no fault in this man” (cf.
23:4, 14-15, 22)

c. the government officials in Acts are presented in a good light and Paul’s
addresses to Roman officials show respect to them and they respond positively in
return to him (cf.. Acts 26:31-32)

d. the Roman centurion, at the crucifixion also gives a positive witness to
Jesus (cf. Luke 23:47)

C. There are some unique theological themes that play a role in the purposes
for Luke’s writings

1. Luke shows special care to certain groups of people.

a. The poor vs. the rich (e.g., Luke’s Beatitudes, Luke 6:20-23)

b. The outcasts

(1) immoral women (cf. Luke 7:36-50)

(2) Samaritans (cf. Luke 9:51-56; 10:29-37)

(3) rebellious runaways (cf. Luke 15:11-32)

(4) tax collectors (cf. Luke 19:1-10)

(5) lepers (cf. Luke 17:11-19)

(6) criminals (cf. Luke 23:39-43)

2. Luke mentions the Temple in Jerusalem. The Gospel begins with the Jews
and their Scriptures (i.e., Jesus fulfills OT prophesy), but they reject Him
(cf. 11:14-36) and He becomes the Savior of the entire world (cf. 10:1-24) and
replaces their temple with Himself (cf. ??).

VII. THE SOURCES FOR LUKE’S GOSPEL

A. Several theories have been advanced concerning the relationship between
Matthew, Mark and Luke (the Synoptic Gospels)

1. The uniform tradition of the early church is that Luke, a Gentile
physician and missionary companion of the Apostle Paul, wrote the Gospel.

2. Around 1776 A. E. Lessing (and later Gieseler in 1818), theorized an oral
stage in the development of the Synoptic (“to see together”) Gospels. He
asserted that they were all dependent on earlier oral traditions which the
writers modified for their own target audiences

a. Matthew: Jews

b. Mark: Romans

c. Luke: Gentiles

Each was related to a separate geographical center of Christianity

a. Matthew: Antioch, Syria or Judea

b. Mark: Rome, Italy

c. Luke: Caesarea by the Sea, Palestine or Achaia

d. John: Ephesus, Asia Minor

3. In the early nineteenth century J. J. Griesbach theorized that Matthew
and Luke wrote separate accounts of Jesus’ life, completely independent of each
other. Mark wrote a brief Gospel trying to mediate between these other two
accounts.

4. In the early twentieth century H. J. Holtzmann theorized that Mark was
the first written Gospel and that both Matthew and Luke used his Gospel
structure plus a separation document containing the sayings of Jesus called Q
(German quelle or “source”). This was labeled the “two source” theory
(endorsed by Fredrick Schleiermacher in 1832).

Some speculate that this list of quotes from Jesus, structured like OT
wisdom literature, may be what Papias records that Matthew wrote. The problem is
that not one copy of this list of sayings survived. If the church cherished the
Gospels so much, how could they lose a list of the sayings of the Founder of the
Faith used by both Matthew and Luke?

5. Later, B. H. Streeter theorized a modified “two source” theory that he
called “the four source” theory which posited a “proto Luke” plus Mark plus Q.

6. The above theories of the formation of the Synoptic Gospels are only
speculation. There is no historical nor actual manuscript evidence of either a
“Q” source or a “proto Luke.”

Modern scholarship simply does not know how the Gospels developed nor who
wrote them (the same is true of the OT Law and former Prophets). However, this
lack of information does not affect the Church’s view of their inspiration or
trustworthiness as historical as well as faith documents.

7. There are obvious similarities in structure and wording between the
Synoptics, but there are also many arresting differences. Differences are common
in eyewitness accounts. The early church was not bothered by the divergence of
these three eyewitness accounts of Jesus’ life.

It may be that the target audience, the style of the author and the
different languages involved (Aramaic and Greek) account for the seeming
discrepancies. It must be stated that these inspired writers, editors or
compilers had the freedom to select, arrange, adapt and summarize the events and
teachings of Jesus’ life (cf. How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth by
Fee and Stuart, pp. 113-148).

B. Luke specifically claims that he did research (cf. Luke 1:1-4) into
Jesus’ life from eye-witnesses. Paul’s imprisonment at Caesarea by the Sea in
Palestine allowed Luke time and access to these people. Chapters 1-2 may reflect
Mary’s memories (cf. Sir William Ramsay, Was Christ Born at Bethlehem?)
as does the genealogy of chapter 3.

C. Several of the early church sources mention that Luke was a traveling
missionary companion of the Apostle Paul. Some of these early sources also
assert that Luke’s Gospel was affected by Paul’s preaching. It cannot be denied
that the worldwide mission of the gospel is clearly identified as fulfilled
prophecy in Luke, Acts, and Paul’s writings.

VIII. THE UNIQUENESS OF LUKE

A. The first two chapters are unique to Luke and may have come from Mary, as
does the genealogy of 3:23-28.

B. Miracles unique to Luke

1. son of the widow of Nain resuscitated, 7:12-17

2. sick woman in synagogue healed on the Sabbath, 13:10-17

3. sick man in synagogue healed on the Sabbath, 14:1-6

4. ten lepers healed, only one, a Samaritan, returns to give thanks,
17:11-18

C. Parables unique to Luke

1. the good Samaritan, 10:25-37

2. the persistent friend, 11:5-13

3. the rich fool, 12:13-21

4. the lost coin, 15:8-10

5. the two sons, 15:11-32

6. the unrighteous steward, 16:1-8

7. the rich man and Lazarus, 16:19-31

8. the unrighteous judge, 18:1-8

9. the Pharisee and Publican, 18:9-14

D. Parables in Luke that are also in Matthew but used differently

1. 12:39-46 (Matt. 24:43-44)

2. 14:16-24 (Matt. 22:2-14)

3. 19:11-27 (Matt. 25:14-30)

E. Other unique accounts

1. the events of the first two chapters

2. Zaccheus the tax-collector, 19:1-10

3. Jesus sent to Herod by Pilate to be examined, 23:8-12

4. the two on the road to Emmaus, 24:13-32

F. The most unique elements in Luke are found in 9:51-18:14. Here Luke does
not rely on Mark or “Q” (i.e., sayings of Jesus possibly written by Matthew).
Even similar events or teachings are put into a different form. The unifying
theme of this section is “on the way to Jerusalem” (cf. 9:51; 13:22, 33; 17:11;
18:31; 19:11,28) which is really His journey to the cross.

IX. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. barren, 1:7

2. redemption, 1:6;8

3. horn of salvation, 1:69

4. census, 2:1

5. zealot, 6:15

6. the kingdom of God, 6:20

7. played the flute, 7:32

8. synagogue official, 8:49

9. the Son of Man must suffer, 9:22

10. Samaritan, 10:33

11. Woe to you! 11:42, 43, 44, 47, 52

12. repent, 13:3, 5

13. the narrow door, 13:24

14. carry his own cross, 14:27

15. mammon, 16:11

16. the Law and the Prophets, 16:16

17. Abraham’s bosom, 16:22

18. millstone, 17:2

19. until the times of the Gentiles be fulfilled, 21:24

20. the Council of elders, 22:66

21. Paradise, 23:43

X. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. Theophilus, 1:3

2. Zacharias, 1:5

3. an angel of the Lord, 1:11; 2:9

4. Gabriel, 1:26

5. Quirinius, 2:2

6. Anna, 2:36

7. Tiberius, 3:1

8. Herod the tetrarch, 3:1, 19

9. Caiaphas, 3:2

10. Naaman, 4:2

11. Queen of the south, 11:31

12. Zechariah, 10:51

13. Lazarus, 16:23

14. Zaccheus, 19:2

15. Joseph, 23:50

16. Cleopas, 24:18

XI. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Galilee, 1:26

2. Nazareth, 1:4

3. Bethlehem, 1:4

4. Ituraea, 3:1

5. Bethsaida, 9:10

6. Chorazin, 10:13

7. Tyre, 10:13

8. Capernaum, 10:15

9. Samaria, 17:11

10. Sodom, 17:29

11. Jericho, 19:1

12. Emmaus,24:13

13. Bethany, 24:50

XII. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What is the significance of God revealing the birth of Jesus to the
shepherds first?

2. What is the significance of Jesus’ statement in 2:49?

3. Why does the genealogy in Luke go all the way back to Adam?

4. How were the disciples breaking the law in 6:1-5? What law were they
breaking?

5. Explain Jesus’ words in 6:46.

6. Why did John doubt Jesus was the promised Messiah in chapter 17:18-23?

7. Why did the people of Gerasene want Jesus to leave?

8. Explain in your own words the implications of 9:62.

9. When did Satan fall from heaven? (10:18)

10. Why did the Jews hate the Samaritans?

11. Does 12:41-48 imply degrees of punishment or levels of hell?

12. Explain 13:28-30 in your own words.

13. What is the purpose(s) of the parable of the prodigal son in 15:11-32?

14. Explain 16:18 in your own words but be sure to interpret it in light of
its historical setting.

15. Does 17:34-35 support a secret rapture? Why or why not?

16. Why is 20:2 such an important question?

17. Who are the vine-growers of 20:10?

18. Was Judas responsible for his acts in light of 22:3?

19. Why would 23:20 be an important verse for Luke to record?

INTRODUCTION TO JOHN

I. OPENING STATEMENTS

A. Matthew and Luke begin with Jesus’ birth, Mark begins with His baptism,
but John begins before the creation.

B. John presents the full deity of Jesus of Nazareth from the first verse of
the first chapter and repeats this emphasis throughout the Gospel. The Synoptic
Gospels veil this truth until late in their presentations (“The Messianic
Secret”).

C. Apparently John develops his Gospel in light of the basic affirmations of
the Synoptic Gospels. He attempts to supplement and interpret the life and
teachings of Jesus in light of the needs of the early church (late first
century).

D. John seems to structure his presentation of Jesus the Messiah around

1. seven miracles/signs and their interpretation

2. twenty-seven interviews and/or dialogues with individuals

3. certain worship and feast days

a. the Sabbath

b. the Passover (cf. chapters 5-6)

c. the Tabernacles (cf. chapters 7-10)

d. Hanukkah (cf. 10:22-39)

4. “I Am” statements

a. related to the divine name (YHWH)

1) I am He (4:26; 8:24,28; 13:19; 18:5-6)

2) before Abraham was I am (8:54-59)

b. with predicate nominatives

1) I am the bread of life (6:35, 41, 48, 51)

2) I am the light of the world (8:12)

3) I am the door of the sheepfold (10:7, 9)

4) I am the good shepherd (10:11, 14)

5) I am the resurrection and the life (11:25)

6) I am the way, the truth and the life (14:6)

7) I am the true vine (15:1, 5)

E. The differences between John and the other Gospels

1. Although it is true that John’s primary purpose is theological, his use of
history and geography is extremely accurate and detailed. The exact reason for
the discrepancies between the Synoptics and John is uncertain

a. an early Judean ministry (early cleansing of the Temple)

b. chronology and date of the last week of Jesus’ life

2. It would be helpful to take a moment to discuss the obvious difference
between John and the Synoptics. Let me quote George Eldon Ladd from A
Theology of the New Testament on the differences:

a. “The Fourth Gospel is so different from the Synoptics that the question
must be honestly faced whether it reports accurately the teachings of Jesus or
whether Christian faith has so modified the tradition that history is swallowed
up in theological interpretation” (p. 215).

b. “The solution that lies closest to hand is that the teachings of Jesus are
expressed in Johannine idiom. If this is the correct solution, and if we must
conclude that the Fourth Gospel is couched in Johannine idiom, this important
question follows: To what extent is the theology of the Fourth Gospel that of
John rather than that of Jesus? To what extent has the teaching of Jesus been so
assimilated in John’s mind that what we have is a Johannine interpretation
rather than an accurate representation of Jesus’ own teaching?” (p. 215).

c. Ladd also quotes W. F. Albright from “Recent Discoveries in Palestine and
the Gospel of John” in The Background of the New Testament and Its
Eschatology edited by W. D. Davies and D. Daube

“There is no fundamental difference in teaching between John and the
Synoptics; the contrast between them lies in the concentration of tradition
along certain aspects of Christ’s teachings, particularly those which seem to
have resembled the teaching of the Essenes most closely.

There is absolutely nothing to show that any of Jesus’ teachings have been
distorted or falsified, or that a vital new element has been added to them. That
the needs of the early Church influenced the selection of items for inclusion in
the Gospel we may readily admit, but there is no reason to suppose that the
needs of that Church were responsible for any inventions or innovations of
theological significance.

One of the strangest assumptions of critical New Testament scholars and
theologians is that the mind of Jesus was so limited that any apparent contrast
between John and the Synoptics must be due to differences between early
Christian theologians. Every great thinker and personality is going to be
interpreted differently by different friends and hearers, who will select what
seems most congenial or useful out of what they have seen and heard” (pp.
170-171).

d. And again from George E. Ladd:

“The difference between them is not that John is theological and the others
are not but that all are theological in different ways. Interpreted history may
represent more truly the facts of a situation than a mere chronicle of events.
If John is a theological interpretation, it is an interpretation of events that
John is convinced happened in history. It is obviously not the intent of the
Synoptic Gospels to give a report of the
ipsissima verba of (the exact words) Jesus nor a biography of the events
of his life. They are portraits of Jesus and summaries of his teaching. Matthew
and Luke feel themselves free to rearrange the material in Mark and to report
Jesus’ teaching with considerable freedom. If John used more freedom than
Matthew and Luke, it is because he wished to give a more profound and ultimately
more real portrait of Jesus” (pp. 221-222).

II. AUTHOR

A. The Gospel is anonymous but hints at John’s authorship

1. an eye witness author (cf. 19:35)

2. the phrase “the beloved disciple” (both Polycrates and Irenaeus identify
him as John the Apostle)

3. John, son of Zebedee, never mentioned by name

B. The historical setting is obvious from the Gospel itself, therefore, the
issue of authorship is not a crucial factor in interpretation. The affirmation
of an inspired author is crucial!

The authorship and date of John’s Gospel does not affect inspiration, but
interpretation. Commentators seek a historical setting, an occasion that caused
the book to be written. Should one compare John’s dualism to (1) the Jewish two
ages; (2) the Qumran teacher of righteousness; (3) Zoroastrian religion; (4)
Gnostic thought; or (5) the unique perspective of Jesus?

C. The early traditional view is that
John the Apostle, son of Zebedee, is the human, eye-witness source. This must be
clarified because second century external sources seem to link others in the
production of the Gospel:

1. Fellow believers and the Ephesian elders encouraged the aging Apostle to
write (Eusebius quotes Clement of Alexandria)

2. A fellow Apostle, Andrew (the Muratorian Fragment, A.D. 180-200, from
Rome)

D. Some modern scholars have assumed another author based on several
assumptions about the style and subject matter of the Gospel. Many assume an
early second century date (before A.D. 115):

1. written by John’s disciples (a Johannine circle of influence) who
remembered his teachings (J. Weiss, B. Lightfoot, C. H. Dodd, O. Cullmann, R. A.
Culpepper, C. K. Barrett)

2. written by “the elder John,” (one of a series of early leaders from Asia
influenced by John the Apostle’s theology and terminology) which is derived from
an obscure passage in Papias (A.D. 70-146) quoted by Eusebius (A.D. 280-339)

E. Evidence for John himself as the primary source for the material of the
Gospel

1. internal evidence

a. the author knew Jewish teachings and rituals and shared their OT world
view

b. the author knew Palestine and Jerusalem in their pre-A.D. 70 condition

c. the author claims to be an eyewitness

1) 1:14

2) 19:35

3) 21:24

d. the author was a member of the apostolic group, for he is familiar with:

1) details of time and place (the night trials)

2) details of numbers (water pots of 2:6 and fish of 21:11)

3) details of persons

4) the author knew details of events and the reaction to them

5) the author seems to be designated as “the beloved disciple”

a) 13:23,25

b) 19:26-27, 34-35

c) 20:2-5,8

d) 21:7, 20-24

6) the author seems to be a member of the inner circle along with Peter

a) 13:24

b) 20:2

c) 21:7

7) the name John, son of Zebedee, never appears in this Gospel, which seems
highly unusual because he was a member of the Apostolic inner circle

e. External evidence

1) Gospel known by

a) Irenaeus (A.D. 120-202) who was associated with Polycarp, knew John the
Apostle (cf. Eusebius’ Historical Eccleasticus 5:20:6-7) – “John the
disciple of the Lord who reclined on His breast and himself issued the Gospel at
Ephesus in Asia” (Haer, 3:1:1, quoted in Eusebius’ Hist. Eccl.
5:8:4).

b) Clement of Alexandria (A.D. 153-217) – “John who was urged by his friends
and divinely moved by the Spirit, composed a spiritual Gospel” (Eusebius’
Historical Eccleasticus
6:14:7)

c) Justin Martyr (A.D. 110-165) in his Dialogue with Trypho 81:4

d) Tertullian (A.D. 145-220)

2) John’s authorship asserted by very early witnesses

a) Polycarp (A.D. 70-156, recorded by Irenaeus), who was bishop of Smyrna
(A.D. 155)

b) Papias (A.D. 70-146, recorded by the Anti-Marconite Prologue from Rome and
Eusebius), who was the bishop of Hierapolis in Phyrgia and reported to be a
disciple of John the Apostle

F. Reasons used to doubt traditional authorship

1. The Gospel’s connection with gnostic themes

2. The obvious appendix of chapter 21

3. The chronological discrepancies with the Synoptics

4. John would not have referred to himself as “the beloved disciple”

5. John’s Jesus uses different vocabulary and genres than the Synoptics

G. If we assume it was John the Apostle then what can we assume about the
man?

1. He wrote from Ephesus (Irenaeus says “issued the Gospel from Ephesus”)

2. He wrote when he was an older man (Irenaeus says he lived until the reign
of Trajan, A.D. 98-117)

III. DATE

A. If we assume John the Apostle

1. before A.D. 70, when Jerusalem was destroyed by the Roman General (later
Emperor), Titus

a. in John 5:2, “Now in Jerusalem near the sheepgate
there is a pool called in Hebrew
Bethesda, which has five porticoes. . .”

b. repeated use of the early title “disciples” to denote the apostolic group

c. supposed later gnostic elements have now been discovered in the Dead Sea
Scrolls, which show they were part of the theological jargon of the first
century

d. no mention of the destruction of the Temple and the city of Jerusalem in
A.D. 70

e. the famous American archaeologist W. F. Albright asserts a date for the
Gospel in the late 70’s or early 80’s

2. later in the first century

a. the developed theology of John

b. the fall of Jerusalem not mentioned because it occurred some twenty years
earlier

c. John’s use of gnostic-type phrasing and emphasis

d. the early traditions of the church

1) Irenaeus

2) Eusebius

B. If we assume “John the elder” then the date would be early to mid second
century. This theory started with Dionysius’ rejection of John the Apostle’s
authorship (for literary reasons). Eusebius, who rejected John the Apostle’s
authorship of Revelation for theological reasons, felt he had found another
“John” at the right time and in the right place in Papias’ quote (Historical
Eccleasticus 3:39:5,6), which lists two “Johns” (1) the Apostle and (2) an
Elder (presbyter).

IV. RECIPIENTS

A. Originally it was written to the churches of the Roman Province of Asia
Minor, particularly Ephesus.

B. Because of the profound simplicity and depth of this account of the life
and person of Jesus of Nazareth this became a favorite Gospel for both
Hellenistic Gentile believers and gnostic groups.

V. PURPOSES

A. The Gospel itself asserts its evangelistic purpose, 20:30-31

1. for Jewish readers

2. for Gentile readers

3. for incipient gnostic readers

B. It seems to have an apologetic thrust

1. against the fanatic followers of John the Baptist

2. against the incipient gnostic false teachers (especially the Prologue);
these gnostic false teachings also form the background to other NT books:

a. Ephesians

b. Colossians

c. the Pastoral Epistles (I Timothy, Titus, II Timothy)

d. I John (I John may have functioned as a cover letter for the Gospel)

C. There is the possibility that the purpose statement of 20:31 may be
understood as encouraging the doctrine of perseverance as well as evangelism
because of the consistent use of the PRESENT TENSE to describe salvation. In
this sense John, like James, may be balancing an over-emphasis of Paul’s
theology by some groups in Asia Minor (cf. II Peter 3:15-16). It is surprising
that early church tradition identifies John with Ephesus, not Paul (cf. F. F.
Bruce’s Peter, Stephen, James and John: Studies in Non-Pauline Christianity,
pp. 120-121).

D. The Epilogue (chapter 21) seems to answer specific questions of the early
church

1. John supplements the accounts of the Synoptic Gospels. However, he focuses
on the Judean ministry, particularly Jerusalem.

2. The two questions covered in the Appendix, chapter 21

a. Peter’s restoration

b. John’s longevity

c. Jesus’ delayed return

E. Some see John as de-emphasizing sacramentalism by purposefully ignoring
and not recording or discussing the ordinances themselves despite perfect
contextual opportunities in chapter 3 (for baptism) and chapter 6 (for the
Eucharist or the Lord’s Supper).

VI. OUTLINE BASED ON

A. A philosophical/theological Prologue (1:1-18) and a practical Epilogue
(chapter 21)

B. Seven miracle signs during Jesus’ public ministry (chapters 2-12) and
their interpretation:

1. changing water into wine at the wedding feast in Cana (2:1-11)

2. healing the son of the officer of the court at Capernaum (4:46-54)

3. healing of the lame man at the pool of Bethesda in Jerusalem (5:1-18)

4. feeding of about 5,000 in Galilee (6:1-15)

5. walking on the Sea of Galilee (6:16-21)

6. healing of the man born blind in Jerusalem (9:1-41)

7. raising of Lazarus in Bethany (11:1-57)

C. Interviews and dialogue with individuals

1. John the Baptist (1:19-34; 3:22-36)

2. disciples

a. Andrew and Peter (1:35-42)

b. Philip and Nathanael (1:43-51)

3. Nicodemus (3:1-21)

4. woman of Samaria (4:1-45)

5. Jews in Jerusalem (5:10-47)

6. crowd in Galilee (6:22-66)

7. Peter and disciples (6:67-71)

8. Jesus’ brothers (7:1-13)

9. Jews in Jerusalem (7:14-8:59; 10:1-42)

10. disciples in upper room (13:1-17:26)

11. Jewish arrest and trial (18:1-27)

12. Roman trial (18:28-19:16)

13. post-resurrection conversations, 20:11-29

a. with Mary

b. with the ten Apostles

c. with Thomas

14. epilogue dialogue with Peter, 21:1-25

15. (7:53-8:11, the story of the adulterous woman, was not originally part of
John’s Gospel!)

D. Certain worship/feast days

1. the Sabbaths (5:9; 7:22; 9:14; 19:31)

2. the Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 11:55; 18:28)

3. the feast of Tabernacles (chapters 8-9)

4. Hanukkah (festival of lights, cf. 10:22)

E. Use of “I Am” statements

1. “I am ‘He'” (4:26; 6:20; 8:24,28,54-59; 13:19; 18:5-6,8)

2. “I am the bread of life” (6:35,41,48,51)

3. “I am the light of the world” (8:12; 9:5)

4. “I am the door of the sheepfold” (10:7,9)

5. “I am the good shepherd” (10:11,14)

6. “I am the resurrection and the life” (11:25)

7. “I am the way, the truth and the life” (14:6)

8. “I am the true vine” (15:1,5)

VII. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. the Word, 1:1

2. believe, 1:7

3. “the world was made through Him,” 1:10

4. “the Word became flesh,” 1:14

5. truth, 1:17

6. the Prophet, 1:21

7. the Lamb of God,” 1:29

8. “as a dove,” 1:32

9. Rabbi, 1:38

10. “Truly, truly,” 1:51

11. “the angels of God ascending and descending,” 1:51

12. “six stone waterpots,” 2:6

13. “a ruler of the Jews,” 3:1

14. “born again,” 3:3

15. “the Son of Man must be lifted up,” 3:14; 12:34

16. “eternal life,” 3:16

17. “I am the bread of life,” 6:35,48

18. “Feast of Booths,” 7:2

19. “You have a demon,” 7:20; 8:48; 10:20

20. the Dispersion (diaspora), 7:35

21. “Jesus was not yet glorified,” 7:39

22. “before Abraham was born, I am,” 8:58

23. “put out of the synagogue,” 9:22

24. “door of the sheep,” 10:7

25. “the Feast of Dedication,” 10:22

26. blaspheming, 10:36

27. “finding a young donkey, sat on it,” 12:14

28. “the hour,” 12:23

29. “Satan then entered into him,” 13:27

30. “a new commandment,” 13:34

31. “dwelling places,” 14:2

32. “abide in Me,” 15:4

33. “lifting up His eyes to heaven,” 17:1

34. “the only true God,” 17:3

35. “before the foundation of the world,” 17:24

36. scourged, 19:1

37. Gabbatha, 19:13

38. Golgotha, 19:17

39. “asked Pilate that their legs might be broken,” 19:31

40. the Jewish day of preparation,” 19:42

VIII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. John, 1:6

2. Son of God, 1:34

3. Messiah, 1:41

4. Cephas, 1:42

5. Nicodemus, 3:1

6. the Prophet, 7:40

7. Lazarus, 11:2

8. Didymus, 11:16

9. Judas Iscariot, 13:2

10. the Helper, 14:26

11. Malchus, 18:10

12. Annas, 18:24

13. Mary the wife of Clopas, 19:25

IX. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Galilee, 1:43

2. Nazareth, 1:45

3. Cana, 2:1

4. Capernaum, 2:12

5. Aenon near Salim, 3:23

6. Samaria, 4:4

7. Tiberias, 6:1

8. Bethlehem, 7:42

9. Bethany, 11:1

10. Kidron, 18:1

11. Sea of Tiberias, 21:1

X. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Why is John 1:1 so important?

2. Why was John’s baptism unusual?

3. What does being born again mean?

4. How are “believe” and “obey” related in 3:35?

5. What does 4:24 mean?

6. Why is John 5:4 in brackets?

7. Does 9:2 imply reincarnation?

If not, explain why?

8. Explain the irony of 9:41

9. Explain 10:34-35 in your own words.

10. Why did Jesus wash the disciples’ feet in chapter 13? What is the setting
of chapters 13-17?

11. Why is John 14:6 so significant?

12. Why is John 14:23 so important?

13. Explain John 15:16.

14. John 17 is called “Jesus’ High Priestly prayer.” He prays for three
different people or groups, name them.

15. Explain the interchange between Jesus and Pilate in John 18:33-38

16. Did the disciples receive the Spirit in 20:22 or at Pentecost in Acts 1?

17. Why is John 20:31 significant?

INTRODUCTION TO ACTS

I. OPENING STATEMENTS

A. Acts forms an indispensable link between the accounts of Jesus’ life
(Gospels), their preaching in Acts, their interpretation, and the application in
the Apostolic Letters of the New Testament.

B. The early church developed and circulated two collections of New Testament
writings: (1) the Gospels (four Gospels) and (2) the Apostle (i.e., Paul’s
letters). However, with the early Christological heresies of the second century,
the value of the book of Acts became obvious. Acts reveals this content and
purpose of Apostolic preaching (kerygma) and the amazing results of the
gospel.

C. The historical accuracy of Acts has been accentuated and confirmed by
modern archaeological discoveries, especially in relation to the title of Roman
governmental officials (e.g.,
stratēgoi, 16:20,22,35,36 [also used of temple captains, Luke 22:4,52;
Acts 4:1; 5:24-26]; politarchas, 17:6,8; and prōtō, Acts 28:7, cf.
A. N. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament).
Luke records the tensions within the early church, even the fight between Paul
and Barnabas (cf. Acts 15:39). This reflects a fair, unbalanced, researched
historical/theological writing.

D. The title of the book is found in slightly different forms in the ancient
Greek texts:

1. Manuscript א (Sinaiticus), Tertullian, Didymus, Eusebius have “Acts” (ASV,
NIV)

2. Manuscripts B (i.e., Vaticanus), D (i.e., Bezae) in a subscription,
Irenaeus, Tertullian, Cyrian, Athanasius have “Acts of the Apostles” (KJV, RSV,
NEB)

3. Manuscripts A² (i.e., first correction of Alexandrinus), E, G,
Chrysostom have “Acts of the Holy Apostles”

It is possible that the Greek word praxeis,
praxis (i.e., acts, ways, behavior, deeds, practice) reflects an ancient
Mediterranean literary genre, which denotes the lives and actions of famous or
influential people (i.e., John, Peter, Stephen, Philip, Paul). The book probably
originally had no title (like Luke’s Gospel).

E. There are two distinct textual traditions of Acts. The shorter one is the
Alexandrian (MSS P⁴⁵, P⁷⁴, א, A, B, C). The Western family
of manuscripts (P²⁹, P³⁸, P⁴⁸ and D) seem to
include many more details. It is uncertain whether they are from the author or
were later insertions by scribes, based on early church traditions. Most textual
scholars believe that the Western manuscripts have later additions because (1)
they smooth out or try to fix unusual or difficult texts; (2) add additional
details; (3) add specific phrases to accentuate Jesus as the Christ; and (4) are
not quoted by any early Christian writers sometime in the first three centuries
(cf. F. F. Bruce,
Acts: Greek Text, pp. 69-80).For a more detailed discussion consult A
Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament by Bruce M. Metzger, published
by the United Bible Societies, pp. 259-272.

Because of the vast number of later additions this commentary will
not deal with all the textual options. Whenever a textual variant is
crucial to interpretation, then and only then will it be dealt with in this
commentary.

II. AUTHOR

A. The book is anonymous, but Luke is strongly implied.

1. The unique and surprising “we” sections, 16:10-17 (second missionary
journey at Philippi); 20:5-15; 21:1-18 (end of third missionary journey) and
27:1-28:16 (Paul sent as prisoner to Rome) strongly imply Luke as the author.

2. The connection between the third Gospel and Acts is obvious when one
compares Luke 1:1-4 with Acts 1:1-2.

3. Luke, a Gentile physician, is mentioned in Col. 4:10-14, Philemon 24, and
II Timothy 4:11 as a companion of Paul. Luke is the only Gentile writer in the
NT.

4. The unanimous witness of the early church was that the author was Luke.

a. the Muratorian Fragment (A.D. 180-200 from Rome says, “complied by Luke
the physician”)

b. the writings of Irenaeus (A.D. 130-200)

c. the writings of Clement of Alexandria (A.D. 156-215)

d. the writings of Tertullian (A.D. 160-200)

e. the writings of Origen (A.D. 185-254)

5. The internal evidence of style and vocabulary (especially medical terms)
confirms Luke as author (i.e., Sir William Ramsay and A. Harnack.

B. We have three sources of information about Luke.

1. The three passages in the NT (Col. 4:10-4; Philemon 24; II Tim. 4:11) and
the book of Acts itself.

2. The second century Anti-Marcion prologue to Luke (A.D. 160-180)

3. The early church historian of the fourth century, Eusebius, in his
Ecclesiastical History, 3:4, says “Luke, by race, a native of Antioch, and
by profession, a physician, having associated mainly with Paul and having
companioned with the rest of the apostles less closely, has left us examples of
that healing of souls which he acquired from them in two inspired books, The
Gospel and The Acts of the Apostles.”

4. This is a composite profile of Luke.

a. a Gentile (listed in Col. 4:12-14 with Epaphras and Demas as helpers and
not with the Jewish helpers)

b. from either Antioch of Syria (if Anti-Marcion prologue to Luke) or
Philippi of Macedonia (i.e., Sir William Ramsay on Acts 16:19)

c. a physician (cf. Col. 4:14, or at least a well educated man)

d. became a convert in middle adulthood after the church was started at
Antioch (Anti-Marcion prologue)

e. Paul’s traveling companion (“we” sections of Acts)

f. unmarried

g. wrote the third Gospel and Acts (similar introductions and similar style
and vocabulary)

h. died at the age of 84 at Boeotia

C. Challenges to Luke’s authorship

1. Paul’s preaching on Mars Hill in Athens uses Greek philosophical
categories and terms to form a common ground (cf. Acts 17), but Paul, in Rom.
1-2, seems to regard any “common ground” (i.e., nature, inner moral witness) as
futile.

2. Paul’s preaching and comments in Acts depict him as a Jewish Christian who
takes Moses seriously, but Paul’s letters depreciate the Law as problematic and
passing away.

3. Paul’s preaching in Acts does not have the eschatological focus that his
early books do (i.e., I and II Thessalonians).

4. This contrasting of terms, styles, and emphasis is interesting, but not
conclusive. When the same criteria is applied to the Gospels, the Jesus of the
Synoptics speaks very differently than the Jesus of John. Yet, very few scholars
would deny that both reflect the life of Jesus.

D. When discussing authorship of Acts it is crucial that we discuss Luke’s
sources because many scholars (i.e., C. C. Torrey, ) believe Luke used Aramaic
source documents (or oral traditions) for many of the first fifteen chapters. If
this is true, Luke is an editor of this material, not an author. Even in the
later sermons of Paul Luke only gives us a summary of Paul’s words, not verbatim
accounts. Luke’s use of sources is as crucial a question as his authorship of
the book.

III. DATE

A. There is much discussion and disagreement as to the time of the writing of
Acts, but the events themselves cover from about A.D. 30-63 (Paul was released
from prison in Rome in the middle 60’s and rearrested and executed under Nero,
probably in the persecutions of A.D.. 65).

B. If one assumed the apologetic nature of the book concerning the Roman
government then a date (1) before A.D. 64 (the beginning of Nero’s persecution
of Christians in Rome) and/or (2) related to the Jewish revolt of A.D. 66-73.

C. If one tried to relate Acts to Luke’s Gospel in sequence, then the date
for the writing of the Gospel influences the date of the writing of Acts. Since
the fall of Jerusalem to Titus in A.D. 70 is prophesied (i.e., Luke 21), but not
described, seems to demand a date before A.D.70. If so, then Acts, written as a
sequel, must be dated in the 80’s.

D. If one is bothered by the abrupt ending (i.e., Paul still in prison in
Rome, F. F. Bruce), then a date related to the end of Paul’s first Roman
imprisonment, A.D. 58-63, is favored.

E. Some historical dates related to the historical events recorded in Acts.

1. widespread famine under Claudius, Acts 11:28, A.D. 44-48

2. death of Herod Agrippa I, Acts 12:20-23, A.D. 44 (spring)

3. proconsulship of Sergius Paulus, Acts 13:7, appointed in A.D. 53

4. expulsion of Jews from Rome by Claudius, Acts 18:2, A.D. 49 (?)

5. proconsulship of Gallio, Acts 18:12, A.D. 51 or 52 (?)

6. proconsulship of Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:27, A.D. 52-56 (?)

7. replacement of Felix by Festus, Acts 24:27, A.D. 57-60 (?)

8. Judea’s Roman officials

a. Procurators

(1) Pontius Pilate, A.D. 26-36

(2) Marcellus, A.D. 36-37

(3) Marullus, A.D. 37-41

b. In A.D. 41 the pro curatorial method of Roman administration was changed
to an empirical model. The Roman Emperor, Claudius, appointed Herod Agrippa I in
A.D. 41.

c. After the death of Herod Agrippa I, A.D. 44, the procurator method was
reestablished until A.D. 66

(1) Antonius Felix

(2) Porcius Festus

IV. PURPOSE AND STRUCTURE

A. One purpose of the book of Acts was to document the rapid growth of the
followers of Jesus: from Jewish roots to worldwide ministry; from the locked
upper room to the palace of Caesar:

1. This geographical pattern follows Acts 1:8, which is Acts’ Great
Commission (Matt. 28:19-20).

2. This geographical expansion is expressed in several ways.

a. Using major cities and national boundaries. In Acts there are 32
countries, 54 cities and 9 Mediterranean Islands mentioned. The three major
cities are Jerusalem, Antioch and Rome (cf. Acts 9:15).

b. Using key persons. Acts can almost be divided into two halves: the
ministries of Peter and Paul. There are over 95 people mentioned in Acts, but
the major ones are: Peter, Stephen, Philip, Barnabas, James and Paul.

c. There are two or three literary forms which appear repeatedly in Acts
which seem to reflect the author’s conscious attempt at structure:

(1) summary statements (2) statements of growth (3) use of numbers

1:1 – 6:7 (in Jerusalem) 2:47 3:41

6:8 – 9:31 (in Palestine) 5:14 4:4

9:32 – 12:24 (to Antioch) 6:7 5:14

12:25 – 15:5 (to Asia Minor) 9:31 6:7

16:6 – 19:20 (to Greece) 12:24 9:31

19:21 – 28:31 (to Rome) 16:5 11:21,24

19:20 12:24

14:1

19:20

B. Acts is obviously related to the misunderstanding that surrounded the
death of Jesus for treason. Apparently, Luke is writing to Gentiles (Theophilus,
possibly a Roman official). He uses (1) the speeches of Peter, Stephen, and Paul
to show the scheming of the Jews and (2) the positiveness of Roman governmental
officials toward Christianity. The Romans had nothing to fear from the followers
of Jesus.

1. speeches of Christian leaders

a. Peter, 2:14-40; 3:12-26; 4:8-12; 10:34-43

b. Stephen, 7:1-53

c. Paul, 13:10-42; 17:22-31; 20:17-25; 21:40-22:21; 23:1-6; 24:10-21; 26:1-29

2. contacts with governmental officials

a. Pontius Pilate, Luke 23:13-25

b. Sergius Paulus, Acts 13:7,12

c. chief magistrates of Philippi, Acts 16:35-40

d. Gallio, Acts 18:12-17

e. Asiarchs of Ephesus, Acts 19:23-41 (esp. v. 31)

f. Claudius Lysias, Acts 23:29

g. Felix, Acts 24

h. Porcius Festus, Acts 24

i. Agrippa II, Acts 26 (esp. v. 32)

j. Publius, Acts 28:7-10

3. When one compares Peter’s sermons with Paul’s it is obvious that Paul is
not an innovator, but a faithful proclaimer of apostolic, gospel truths. The
kerygma is unified!

C. Luke not only defended Christianity before the Roman government, but he
also defended Paul before the Gentile church. Paul was repeatedly attacked by
Jewish groups (i.e., Judaizers of Galatians, the “super apostles” of II Cor.
10-13; and Hellenistic groups (i.e., gnosticism of Colossians and Ephesians).
Luke shows Paul’s normalcy by clearly revealing his heart and theology in his
travels and sermons.

D. Although Acts was not intended to be a doctrinal book, it does record for
us the elements of the early Apostles’ preaching which C. H. Dodd has called
“the Kerygma” (i.e., essential truths about Jesus). This helps us see
what they felt were the essentials of the gospel, especially as they relate to
Jesus’ death and resurrection.

E. Frank Stagg in his commentary, The Book of Acts, the Early Struggle for
an Unhindered Gospel, asserts the purpose is primarily the movement of the
message about Jesus (i.e., the gospel) from a strictly nationalistic Judaism to
a universal message for all humans. Stagg’s commentary focuses on Luke’s
purpose(s) in writing Acts. A good summary and analysis of the different
theories is found on pp. 1-18. Stagg chooses to focus on the term “unhindered”
in 28:31, which is an unusual way to end a book, as the key to understanding
Luke’s emphasis on the spread of Christianity overcoming all barriers.

F. Although the Holy Spirit is mentioned more than fifty times in Acts, it is
not “the Acts of the Holy Spirit.” There are eleven chapters where the Spirit is
never mentioned. He is mentioned most often in the first half of Acts, where
Luke is quoting other sources (possibly originally written in Aramaic). Acts is
not to the Spirit what the Gospels are to Jesus! This is not meant to
depreciate the Spirit’s place, but to guard us from building a theology of the
Spirit primarily or exclusively from Acts.

G. Acts is not designed to teach doctrine (cf. Fee and Stuart,
How to Read the Bible For All Its Worth, pp. 94-112). An example of this
would be the attempt to base a theology of conversion from Acts which is doomed
to failure. The order and elements of conversion differ in Acts; therefore,
which pattern is normative? We must look to the Epistles for doctrinal help.

However, it is interesting that some scholars (i.e., Hans Conzelmann) have
seen Luke purposefully reorienting the imminent eschatologies of the first
century with a patient service approach to the delayed Parousia. The kingdom is
here in power now, changing lives. The church functioning now becomes the focus,
not an eschatological hope.

H. Another possible purpose of Acts is similar to Rom. 9-11, why did the Jews
reject the Jewish Messiah and the church become mostly Gentile? Several places
in Acts the worldwide nature of the gospel is clearly trumpeted. Jesus sends
them into all the words (cf. 1:8). Jews reject Him, but Gentiles respond to Him.
His message reaches Rome.

It is possible that Luke’s purpose is to show that Jewish Christianity (i.e.,
Peter) and Gentile Christianity (i.e., Paul) can live together and grow
together! They are not in competition, but joined in world evangelism.

I. As far as purpose is concerned I agree with F. F. Bruce (i.e., New
International Commentary, p. 18) that since Luke and Acts were originally
one volume, that the prologue for Luke (i.e., 1:1-4) functions also for Acts.
Luke, though not an eyewitness to all the events, carefully researched them and
recorded them accurately, using his own historical, literary, theological
framework.

Luke then, in both his Gospel and narrative, wants to show the historical
reality and theological trustworthiness (cf. Luke 1:4) of Jesus and the church.
It may be that the focus of Acts is the theme of fulfillment (i.e., unhindered,
cf. 28:31, where it is the lat word of the book). This theme is carried forward
by several different words and phrases (cf. Walter L. Liefeld,
Interpreting the Book of Acts, pp. 23-24). The Gospel is not an
after-thought, a plan B, or a new thing. It is God’s predetermined plan (cf.
Acts 2:23; 3:18; 4:28; 13:29).

V. GENRE

A. Acts is to the NT what Joshua- II Kings is to the OT, historical
narrative. Biblical historical narrative is factual, but the focus is not on
chronology or exhaustive recording of event. It selects certain events which
explain who God is, who we are, how we are made right with God, how God wants us
to live.

B. The problem in interpreting biblical narrative is that the authors never
put in the text (1) what their purpose is, (2) what the main truth is, or (3)
how we should emulate the things recorded. The reader needs to think through the
following questions:

1. Why was the event recorded?

2. How does it relate to previous biblical material?

3. What is the central theological truth?

4. Is there significance to the literary context? (What event precedes or
follows? Has this subject been dealt with elsewhere?)

5. How large is the literary context? (Sometimes large amounts of narrative
form one theological theme or purpose.)

C. Historical narrative should not be the only source of doctrine. Often
things are recorded that are incidental to the purpose of the author. Historical
narrative can illustrate truths recorded elsewhere in the Bible. Just because
something happened does not mean it is God’s will for all believers in all ages
(ex. suicide, polygamy, holy war, handling snakes, etc.).

D. The best brief discussion of how to interpret historical narrative is in
Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuart’s How to Read the Bible For All Its Worth,
pp. 78-93 and 94-112.

VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HISTORICAL SETTING

New books on placing Acts in its first century setting produced by
classicists. This inter-disciplinary approach has truly helped the understanding
of the NT. The series is edited by Bruce M. Minter.

A. The Book of Acts in Its Ancient Literary Setting

B. The Book of Acts in Its Graeco-Roman Setting

C. The Book of Acts and Paul in Roman Custody

D. The Book of the Acts in Its Palestinian Setting

E. The Book of Acts in Its Diaspora Setting

F. The Book of Acts in Its Theological Setting

Also very helpful is:

1. A. N. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament

2. Paul Barnett, Jesus and the Rise of Early Christianity

3. James S. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World

VII. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “many convincing proofs,” 1:3

2. “forty days,” 1:3

3. “kingdom of God,” 1:3

4. “a cloud received Him,” 1:9

5. “a Sabbath day’s journey,” 1:12

6. “a Field of Blood,” 1:19

7. “lots,” 1:26

8. “Pentecost,” 2:1

9. “filled with the Holy Spirit,” 2:4

10. “to speak with other tongues,” 2:4

11. “proselytes,” 2:10; 13:43

12. “the predetermined plan and foreknowledge of God,” 2:23

13. “Hades,” 2:31

14. “the right hand of God,” 2:33

15. “repent,” 2:38; 3:19

16. “the breaking of bread,” 2:42,46

17. “the hour of prayer,” 3:1

18. “beg alms,” 3:2

19. “portico of Solomon,” 3:11; 5:12

20. “the Holy and Righteous One,” 3:14

21. “the times of refreshing,” 3:19

22. “uneducated and untrained,” 4:13

23. “he fell asleep,” 7:60

24. “the Way,” 9:2

25. “lay hands on,” 9:12 (cf. 8:17)

26. “cohort,” 10:1

27. “Christians,”11:26

28. “divination,” 16:16

29. “and all his household,” 16:33

30. “Epicurean,” 17:18

31. “Stoic,” 17:18

32. “Areopagus,” 17:22

33. “Jewish exorcists,” 19:13

34. “magic. . .books,” 19:19

35. “silver shrines of Artemis,” 19:24

VIII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. Theophilus, 1:1

2. the women, 1:14

3. Matthias, 1:23

4. Sadducees, 4:1; 5:17

5. Annas, 4:6

6. Caiaphas, 4:6

7. “rulers and elders of the people,” 4:8

8. Ananias, 5:1; 9:10

9. Sapphira, 5:1

10. Gamaliel, 5:34

11. Stephen, 6:5

12. Saul, 7:58; 8:1; 9:1

13. Philip, 8:5

14. Dorcas, 9:36

15. Cornelius, 10:1

16. Agabus, 11:28; 21:10

17. Eutychus, 20:9

IX. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Jerusalem, 1:8

2. Judea, 1:8

3. Samaria, 1:8

4. Parthians, 2:9

5. Cappadocia, 2:9

6. Pontus, 2:9

7. Asia, 2:9

8. Phrygia, 2:10

9. Pamphylia, 2:10

10. Egypt, 2:10

11. Libya, 2:10

12. Cyrene, 2:10

13. Cretans, 2:11

14. Nazareth, 2:22

15. Alexandria, 6:9

16. Cilicia, 6:9

17. Damascus, 9:2

18. Caesarea

19. Jappa, 9:36

20. Phoenicia, 11:19

21. Cyprus, 11:20

22. Tarsus, 11:25

23. Sidon, 12:20

24. Philippi, 16:12

25. Berea, 17:10

26. Athens, 17:16

27. Corinth, 18:1

X. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. How does 1:6 reveal the Apostles’ lack of understanding?

2. How is 1:8 related to Matt. 28:19-20?

3. List the qualifications of an apostle (1:22).

4. Why are “wind” and “fire” associated with the Spirit? (2:2-3)

5. Explain the miracle of 2:8.

6. Peter says Joel’s prophecy is fulfilled. How then do you explain 1:17
and 19-20?

7. What is the theological significance of Jesus being called “Lord” and
“Christ”? (2:36)

8. Is 2:44 a biblical mandate for communism? (cf. 4:34-35)

9. Explain the implication of 3:18.

10. Explain how the OT in 4:11 applies to Jesus.

11. Is the filling of the Spirit always associated with witnessing in Acts?

12. List the qualifications of “the Seven” in Acts 6. Were they deacons?

13. Why was Saul so mad at Christians? (8:1-3)

14. Does 8:15-16 provide modern believers an order of the events of
salvation?

15. What is the purpose of tongues in 10:44-48?

16. Why did Paul first preach in the local synagogues? (13:5)

17. What happened at Lystra that caused Paul and Barnabas to tear their
robes? (14:8-18)

18. What was the purpose of the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15?

19. Why did Paul and Barnabas have a fight? (15:36-41)

20. Why did the Spirit forbid Paul to go to Asia? (16:6)

21. Why were the city leaders so upset in 16:35-40?

22. How did Priscilla and Aquila help Apollos? (18:24-28)

23. Why is 20:21 a significant verse?

24. What is the implication of 21:9?

25. Why was Paul imprisoned at Jerusalem in Acts 21?

26. Explain 23:6-7 in your own words.

INTRODUCTION TO ROMANS

I. OPENING STATEMENTS

A. Romans is the most systematic and logical doctrinal book of the Apostle
Paul. It was affected by circumstances in Rome, therefore, it is an “occasional”
document. Something occurred that caused Paul to write the letter. However it is
the most neutral of Paul’s writings, in that Paul’s way of dealing with the
problem (possibly the jealousy between believing Jewish and Gentile leadership)
was a clear presentation of the gospel and its implications for daily life.

B. Paul’s presentation of the gospel in Romans has impacted the church’s life
in every age:

1. Augustine was converted in A.D. 386 reading Romans 13:13-14.

2. Martin Luther’s understanding of salvation was radically changed in A.D.
1513 as he compared Ps. 31:1 to Rom. 1:17 (cf. Hab. 2:4).

3. John Wesley was converted in A.D. 1738 by hearing Luther’s sermon on the
introduction to Romans.

C. To know Romans is to know Christianity! The letter shapes the life and
teachings of Jesus into bedrock truths for the Church of all ages.

II. AUTHOR

Paul was definitely the author. His typical greeting is found in 1:1. It is
generally agreed that Paul’s “thorn in the flesh” was bad eyesight, therefore,
he did not physically write this letter himself, but he used a scribe, Tertius
(cf. 16:22).

III. DATE

A. The probable date for the authorship of Romans is A.D. 56-58. This is one
of the few New Testament books which can be dated fairly accurately. This is
done by comparing Acts 20:2ff with Romans 15:17ff. Romans was probably written
at Corinth toward the end of Paul’s third missionary journey, just before he
left for Jerusalem.

B. Possible chronology of Paul’s writings following F. F. Bruce and Murry
Harris with minor adaptations.

Book Date Place of Writing Relation
to Acts

1. Galatians 48 Syrian Antioch 14:28; 15:2

2. I Thessalonians 50 Corinth 18:5

3. II Thessalonians 50 Corinth

4. I Corinthians 55 Ephesus 19:20

5. II Corinthians 56 Macedonia 20:2

6. Romans 57 Corinth 20:3

7.-10. Prison Letters

Colossians early 60’s

Ephesians early 60’s Rome

Philemon early 60’s

Philippians late 62-63 28:30-31

11.-13. Fourth Missionary Journey

I Timothy 63 (or later, Macedonia

Titus 63 but before Ephesus
(?)

II Timothy 64
A.D. 68) Rome

IV. RECIPIENTS

The letter states its destination as Rome. We do not know who founded the
church at Rome:

A. It may have been some of the people who were visiting Jerusalem on the day
of Pentecost and were converted and returned home to start a church (cf. Acts
2:10);

B. It could have been disciples who fled the persecution in Jerusalem after
the death of Stephen (cf. Acts 8:4); or

C. It could have been converts from Paul’s missionary journeys who traveled
to Rome. Paul had never visited this church, but he longed to (cf. Acts 19:21).
He had many friends there (cf. Rom. 16).

Apparently his plan was to visit Rome on his way to Spain (cf. Rom. 15:28)
after his trip to Jerusalem with the “love gift.” Paul felt his ministry in the
eastern Mediterranean was finished. He sought new fields (cf. 16:20-23). The
bearer of the letter from Paul in Greece to Rome seems to have been Phoebe, a
deaconess, who was traveling in that direction (cf. Rom. 16:1). Why is this
letter, written on the back streets of Corinth in the first century by a Jewish
tentmaker, so valuable? Martin Luther called it “the chief book in the New
Testament and the purest Gospel.” The value of this book is found in the fact
that it is an in-depth explanation of the gospel by the converted rabbi, Saul of
Tarsus, called to be an apostle to the Gentiles. Most of Paul’s letters are
strongly colored by a local situation, but not Romans. It is a systematic
presentation of an Apostle’s life-long faith.

Did you realize, fellow Christian, that most of the technical terms used
today to describe “faith” (“justification,” “imputation,” “adoption,” and
“sanctification”) come from Romans? Pray for God to open to you this marvelous
letter as we search together for His will for our lives today!

V. PURPOSE

A. An appeal for help for his missionary trip to Spain. Paul saw his
apostolic work in the eastern Mediterranean finished (cf. 16:20-23).

B. To address the problem in the Roman church between believing Jews and
believing Gentiles. This was probably a result of the expulsion of all Jews from
Rome and their later return. By then the Jewish Christian leaders had been
replaced by Gentile Christian leaders.

C. To introduce himself to the Roman church. There was much opposition to
Paul from sincere converted Jews in Jerusalem (Jerusalem Council of Acts 15),
from insincere Jews (Judaizers in Galatians and II Cor. 3, 10-13), and from
Gentiles (Colossians, Ephesians) who tried to merge the gospel with their pet
theories or philosophies.

D. Paul was accused of being a dangerous innovator, adding recklessly to
Jesus’ teaching. The book of Romans was his way of systematically defending
himself by showing how his gospel was true, using the Old Testament and the
teachings of Jesus (the Gospels).

VI. BRIEF OUTLINE

A. Introduction (1:1-17)

1. Salutation (1:1-7)

a. Author (1-5)

b. Destination (6-7a)

c. Greeting (7b)

2. Occasion (1:8-15)

3. Theme (1:16-17)

B. Need for Divine Righteousness (1:18-3:20)

1. Decline of the Gentile World (1:18-32)

2. Hypocrisy of the Jews or Pagan Moralists (2:1-16)

3. Judgment of the Jews (2:17-3:8)

4. Universal Condemnation (3:9-20)

C. What is Divine Righteousness (3:21-8:39)

1. Righteousness by Faith Alone (3:21-31)

2. The Basis of Righteousness: God’s Promise (4:1-25)

a. Abraham’s right standing (4:1-5)

b. David (4:6-8)

c. Abraham’s Relation to Circumcision (4:9-12)

d. God’s Promise to Abraham (4:13-25)

3. The Attainment of Righteousness (5:1-21)

a. The subjective aspect: unmerited love, unequaled joy (5:1-5)

b. the objective basis: God’s amazing love (5:6-11)

c. Adam/Christ typology: Adam’s offense, God’s provision (5:12-21)

4. Divine righteousness must issue in personal righteousness (6:1-7:25)

a. Freed from sin (6:1-14)

(1) A supposed objection (6:1-2)

(2) The meaning of baptism (6:3-14)

b. Satan’s slave or God’s slave: your choice (6:15-23)

c. Man’s marriage to the Law (7:1-6)

d. The Law is good, but sin prevents the good (7:7-14)

e. The eternal struggle of good and evil in the believer (7:15-25)

5. The observable results of divine righteousness (8:1-39)

a. Life in the Spirit (8:1-17)

b. The redemption of creation (8:18-25)

c. The Spirit’s constant help (8:26-30)

d. The judicial triumph of justification by faith (8:31-39)

D. The Divine Purpose for All Humanity (9:1-11:32)

1. The election of Israel (9:1-33)

a. Real heirs of faith (9:1-13)

b. Sovereignty of God (9:14-26)

c. God’s universal plan includes the heathen (9:27-33)

2. The salvation of Israel (10:1-21)

a. God’s righteousness vs. mankind’s righteousness (10:1-13)

b. God’s mercy necessitates messengers, a call for world missions (10:14-18)

c. Israel’s continued disbelief in Christ (10:19-21)

3. The failure of Israel (11:1-36)

a. The Jewish remnant (11:1-10)

b. Jewish jealousy (11:11-24)

c. Israel’s temporary blindness (11:25-32)

d. Paul’s outburst of praise (11:33-36)

E. The Result of the gift of Divine Righteousness (12:1-15:13)

1. Call to consecration (12:1-2)

2. The use of gifts (12:3-8)

3. Believers’ relations with other believers (12:9-21)

4. Relations with the State (13:1-7)

5. Relations with neighbors (13:8-10)

6. Relations with our Lord (13:11-14)

7. Relations with fellow church members (14:1-12)

8. Our effect on others (12:13-23)

9. Relations in Christlikeness (15:1-13)

F. Conclusion (15:14-33)

1. Paul’s personal plans (15:14-29)

2. Requests for prayer (15:30-33)

G. Postscript (16:1-27)

1. Greetings (16:1-24)

2. Benediction (16:25-27)

VII. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. apostle, 1:1

2. “descendant of David according to the flesh,” 1:3

3. saints, 1:7

4. righteousness, 1:17

5. the wrath of God, 1:18

6. repentance, 2:4

7. “there is no partiality with God,” 2:11

8. circumcision, 2:25

9. “the oracles of God,” 3:2

10. justified, 3:4

11. propitiation, 3:25

12. “we also exult in our tribulations,” 5:3

13. “having now been justified by His blood,” 5:9

14. “the gift of righteousness,” 5:17

15. “he who has died is freed from sin,” 6:7

16. sanctification, 6:19

17. “the Spirit of God dwells in you,” 8:9

18. Abba, 8:15

19. perseverance, 8:25

20. foreknew, 8:29

21. predestined, 8:29

22. glorified, 8:29

23. “the right hand of God,” 8:34

24. “principalities. . .powers,” 8:38

25. adoption, 9:4

26. covenants, 9:4

27. “a stone of stumbling,” 9:33

28. confess,” 10:9

29. believe, 10:4,11

30. natural branches, 11:21

31. mystery, 11:25

32. Amen, 11:36

33. practicing hospitality, 12:13

34. curse, 12:14

35. “be subject to governing authorities,” 13:1

36. “lay aside. . .put on,” 13:12

37. “weak in faith,” 14:1

38. “we who are strong,” 15:1

VIII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. Abraham, 4:1

2. the fathers, 9:5

3. Esau, 9:13

4. Baal, 11:4

5. Phoebe, 16:1

6. Prisca and Aquila, 16:3

7. Junias, 16:7 (KJV, Junia)

8. Tertius, 16:22

IX. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Rome, 1:7

2. Cenchrea, 16:1

X. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Why is 1:16 so characteristic of Paul?

2. In what two ways do all humans know God? (i.e. chapters 1-2)

3. How does 1:26-27 address the current issue of homosexuality?

4. How does 2:6 relate to Gal. 6:7?

5. In chapter 3 verses 9-18 is a series of OT quotes. they all refer to what
theological truth?

6. Why is 4:6 so significant?

7. Explain 4:15 in your own words.

8. What does 5:8 say about God?

9. How are 5:18 and 19 parallel?

10. Explain the practical implication of 6:11.

11. Romans 6:23 has been called the gospel in a nutshell, why?

12. Explain the difference between “the newness of the Spirit” and “the
oldness of the letter.” (7:6)

13. Who does chapter 7 describe?

14. What does 7:7-12 say about the purpose of the OT law?

15. How does 7:19 apply to your life?

16. Explain 8:22 in your own words.

17. Is 8:26-27 talking about speaking in tongues?

18. How is 8:28 related to 8:29?

19. What is the subject of the literary unit, chapters 9-11?

20. Explain 10:4 in your own words.

21. Explain 11:7 in your own words.

22. Explain 11:26 in your own words.

23. Are the spiritual gifts mentioned in chapter 12 still valid and
functioning?

24. Explain 12:20 in your own words.

25. Explain 14:14 in your own words.

26. Explain 14:23 in your own words.

INTRODUCTION TO I CORINTHIANS

(PRACTICAL ADVICE TO A TROUBLED CHURCH)

I. THE UNIQUENESS OF I CORINTHIANS

A. It is quoted more often and earlier by the early church fathers than any
other writing of Paul which shows its importance and usefulness.

B. In the Muratorian Fragment, which was a list of canonical books from Rome
(A.D. 200), it is listed as the first of Paul’s writings which also shows its
importance.

C. Paul makes a distinction in this practical letter between his personal
opinion and the Lord’s commands. However, this is based on his knowledge of
Jesus’ teachings on any given subject. If he could he would pass on Jesus’
words. He believed his opinions were also inspired and authoritative (cf. 7:25,
40).

D. Paul’s guiding principle for church fellowship is that the freedom of
individual believers, but also their commensurate corporate responsibility, is
based not on law, but on love. The health and growth of the whole church
supercedes any personal preference or privilege (cf. 12:7).

E. This letter (along with II Corinthians) gives us an early look into the NT
church, its structure, methods, and message. However, it must also be remembered
that this church was a problematic, non-typical congregation.

II. THE CITY OF CORINTH

A. Winter shipping lanes around the southern most point of Greece (i.e. Cape
Malea) were very dangerous. Therefore, a land route of the shortest possible
length was crucial. The geographical location of Corinth on the four mile
isthmus between the Gulf of Corinth (i.e. Adriatic Sea) and the Saronic Gulf
(i.e. Aegean Sea) made the city a major commercial shipping, trading
(specializing in types of pottery and a special type of brass), and military
center. In Paul’s day this was literally where the cultures of the East and West
met.

B. Corinth was also a major cultural center of the Greco-Roman world because
it hosted the bi-annual Isthmian Games which began in 581 B.C. (at the Temple of
Poseidon). Only the Olympic Games in Athens, every four years, rivaled them in
size and importance (Thucydides, Hist. 1.13.5).

C. In 146 B.C. Corinth was involved in a revolt (i.e. the Achaean League)
against Rome and was destroyed by the Roman General Lucius Mummius and the Greek
population dispersed into slavery. Because of its economical and military
importance it was rebuilt in either 46 or 48 B.C. by Julius Caesar. It became a
Roman colony where Roman soldiers retired. It was a mimic of Rome in
architecture and culture and was the administrative center of the Roman (i.e.
Senatorial) province of Achaia in 27 b.c. It became an Imperial Province in A.D..
15.

D. The acropolis of Old Corinth, rising more than 1880 feet above the plain,
was the site of the temple to Aphrodite. To this temple were attached 1,000
prostitutes (Strabo, Geography, 8.6.20-22). To be called “a Corinthian”
(i.e.
Korinthiazesthai, coined by Aristophanes [450-385
B.C..]) was synonymous to loose,
riotous living. This temple, as most of the city, was destroyed in an earthquake
about 150 years before Paul arrived, as it was again in A.D.. 77. It is
uncertain if the fertility cult continued in Paul’s day. Since the Romans, in
146 B.C., destroyed the city and killed or enslaved all of its citizens, the
Greek flavor of the city was superseded by its Roman colonial status (Pausanias,
II.3.7). This Roman cultural context instead of Greek culture, makes a
significant difference in interpreting I Corinthians.

III. THE AUTHOR

A. It was to this city that Paul the Apostle came on his second missionary
journey; the account is found in Acts 18:1-21. Through a vision the Lord
revealed to Paul that many would believe and that there would be no successful
opposition to his ministry (cf. Acts 18:9-10).

B. Paul’s missionary strategy was to plant a church in the major cities of
his day, knowing that converted visitors, traveling salesmen, and sailors would
spread the gospel as they went. It was up to the local church to take
responsibility for the evangelism and discipleship of their area.

C. Paul found Aquila and Priscilla, also believing Jewish tent-makers or
leather workers, in Corinth. They were forced out of Rome in A.D. 49 by
Claudius’ edict (Orosius, Hist. 7:6:15-16) against any Jewish rites or
rituals (cf. Acts 18:2). Paul had come to Corinth alone. Both Silas and Timothy
were on assignments in Macedonia (cf. Acts 18:5). He was very discouraged (cf.
Acts 18:9-19; I Cor. 2:3). However, he persevered and stayed in Corinth eighteen
months (cf. Acts 18:11).

D. Paul’s authorship of this book is attested to by Clement of Rome, who
wrote a letter to Corinth in A.D. 95/96 (I Clement 37:5; 47:1-3; 49:5).
Pauline authorship of this letter has never been doubted, even by modern
critical scholarship.

IV. THE DATE

A. The date of Paul’s visit to Corinth has been ascertained by an inscription
of the Emperor Claudius found at Delphi, which dates the proconsulship of Gallio
as beginning in July A.D. 51 through July, 52 (cf. Acts 18:12-17), which would
make the date of Paul’s arrival about A.D. 49-50.

B. The date of Paul’s letter would then be sometime in the mid-50’s. He wrote
it from Ephesus where he ministered between two years (cf. Acts 19:10) and three
years (cf. Acts 20:34).

C. A possible chronology of Paul’s writings following F. F. Bruce and Murry
Harris with minor adaptations:

Book Date Place of Writing Relation
to Acts

1. Galatians 48 Syrian Antioch 14:28; 15:2

2. I Thessalonians 50 Corinth 18:5

3. II Thessalonians 50 Corinth

4. I Corinthians 55 Ephesus 19:20

5. II Corinthians 56/57 Macedonia 20:2

6. Romans 57 Corinth 20:3

7.-10. Prison Letters

Colossians early 60’s Rome

Ephesians early 60’s Rome

Philemon early 60’s Rome

Philippians late 62-63 Rome 28:30-31

11.-13. Fourth Missionary Journey

I Timothy 63 (or later, Macedonia

Titus 63 but before Ephesus (?)

II Timothy 64 a.d. 68) Rome

(Paul was probably executed in A.D. 65).

V. RECIPIENT OF THE LETTER

A. The recipient of the letter was the fledgling church made up mostly of
Gentiles. The population of Corinth was racially and culturally mixed. We know
from archaeology and Scripture (cf. Acts 18:4-8) that there was a synagogue in
Corinth.

B. Roman soldiers were retired there after they completed twenty years of
military service. Corinth was a free city, a Roman colony, and capital of the
Roman province of Achaia.

C. The letter seems to reflect several groups in the church: (1) intellectual
Greeks who were still very proud of their philosophical traditions and were
trying to wed Christian revelation to these old customs and intellectual
traditions; (2) Roman patrons and the socially elite; (3) a believing Jewish
contingent made up mostly of “god-fearing” Gentiles, who attended the synagogue;
and (4) a large number of converted slaves.

VI. THE PURPOSE OF THE LETTER

A. Paul heard of the problems that had developed at Corinth from four sources

1. Chloe’s people, 1:11

2. a letter from the church asking questions, 7:1,25; 8:1; 12:1; 16:1,12

3. a personal visit from Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus, 16:17. It is
possible that the letter (#2) was brought by these men (#3).

It is interesting that Murry Harris has outlined the book of I Corinthians
based on Paul’s received information about the church.

1. oral report from members of Chloe’s household, resulting in Paul writing
chapters 1-4

2. oral report from church representatives (i.e. Stephanus, Fortunatus, and
Achaicus), resulting in chapters 5-6

3. written questions from the church, resulting in chapters 7-16

B. The church had become factious, advocating different leaders: Paul,
Apollos, Peter, and possibly a Christ party (cf. 1:12). Not only was the church
divided over leadership types, but also over several moral issues and the use of
spiritual gifts. A main point of contention was Paul’s Apostolic authority
(especially II Corinthians)!

VII. PAUL’S CONTACTS WITH THE CORINTHIAN CHURCH—A TENTATIVE PROPOSAL

A. How many letters did Paul write to Corinth?

1. just two, I and II Corinthians

2. three, with one letter being lost

3. four, with two letters being lost

4. some modern scholars find parts of the two lost letters in II Corinthians

a. previous letter (I Cor. 5:9) in II Cor. 6:14-17:1)

b. severe letter (II Cor. 2:3-4,9; 7:8-12) in II Cor. 10-13)

5. five, with II Cor. 10-13 being the fifth letter, sent after Titus’ report
relating the further bad news

B. Theory #3 seems to fit best

1. previous letter, lost (I Cor. 5:9)

2. I Corinthians

3. severe letter, lost (possibly part of which is recorded in II Cor. 2:1-11;
7:8-12)

4. II Corinthians

C. A proposed reconstruction

DATE	VISIT	LETTER
A.D. 50-52 Paul’s Second Missionary Journey	a. On Paul’s Second Missionary Journey he stayed in Corinth eighteen months (cf. Acts 18:1-11)
A.D. 52 Gallio was proconsul from a.d. 52 (cf. Acts 18:12-17)		a. I Cor. 5:9-11 seems to refer to a letter about an immoral situation in the church. This letter is unknown unless: (1) as some suppose, that II Cor. 6:14-7:1 is part of it or (2) that II Cor. 2:3,4,9 are epistolary aorists and refer to II Corinthians.
A.D. 56 (Spring)	b. Paul hears about problems in the church while he is in Ephesus from two sources: (1) Chloe’s people, I Cor. 1:11 and (2) Stephanas, Forltunatus, and Achaicus, I Cor. 16:17. They apparently brought a letter from the Corinthian house churches containing questions
A.D. 56 (Winter) or a.d. 57 (Winter)		b. Paul answers these questions (cf. I Cor. 7:1,25; 8:1; 12:1; 16:1,2) by writing I Corinthians. Timothy (cf. I Cor. 4:17) takes the response from Ephesus (cf. I Cor. 16:8) to Corinth. Timothy was not able to solve the problems in the church.
	c. Paul made an emergency, painful visit to Corinth (not recorded in Acts, cf. II Cor. 2:1). It was not successful, but he vowed to return.	c. Paul wrote a severe letter (cf. II Cor. 2:3-4:9; 7:8-12) to the Corinthian house churches which was delivered by Titus (cf. II Cor. 2:13; 7:13-15). This letter is unknown, unless, as some suppose, part of it is in II Cor. 10-13.
	d. Paul planned to meet Titus in Troas, but Titus did not come, so Paul went to Macedonia (cf. II Cor. 2:13; 7:5,13), possibly Philippi (cf. MSS Bc, K, L, P).	d. He found Titus and heard that the church had responded to his leadership and he then wrote II Corinthians in great thanksgiving (cf. 7:11-16). It was delivered by Titus
A.D. 57-58 (Winter)	e. Paul’s last recorded visit to Corinth seems to be referred to in Acts 20:2-3. Although it does not mention Corinth by name, it is assumed. He stayed there during the winter months.	e. The marked mood change between chapters 1-9 and 10-13 is explained by some scholars as more bad news (possibly the revitalization of old opponents and the addition of new opponents) from the Corinthian house churches after chapters 1-9 had been written (F. F. Bruce).

VIII. CONCLUSION

A. In I Corinthians we see Paul, a pastor, dealing with a problem church. In
this letter and in Galatians, we see him apply universal gospel truth in
different ways, based on the need of the church: freedom for the Galatian
churches/limits to the Corinthian church.

B. This book is either a series of “cultural dinosaurs” or a wealth of
principled truth applied to a particular historical/cultural setting. We must be
careful not to confuse truth and cultural applications of that truth. For a good
discussion of this very important hermeneutical issue see Gordon D. Fee and
Douglas Stuart’s How To Read the Bible for All Its Worth, pp. 65-76.

C. This book will push you to the limit of your spiritual ability to
interpret the Bible. It will force you to rethink aspects of your theology. It
will open a window to God’s will for our day, practically speaking, as few other
biblical writings.

IX. BRIEF OUTLINE OF I CORINTHIANS

A. Introduction 1:1-9

1. Greeting, 1:1-3

2. Thanksgiving, 1:4-9

B. Reported problems at Corinth, 1:10-6:20

1. Factions within the church because of the misunderstanding of Christian
leadership’s (i.e. Paul, Apollos, Peter) motives and message, 1:10-4:12

2. Shocking immorality, 5:1-13

3. Christian lawsuits, 6:1-11

4. Christian freedom limited by responsibility, 6:12-20

C. A letter from Corinth asking the nagging questions, 7:1-1-16:4

1. Human sexuality, 7:1-40

2. Relationship to an idolatrous culture and Christian freedom, 8:1-11:1

3. Christian worship and spirituality, 11:2-14:40

4. Insights on eschatology, especially the resurrection, 15:1-58

5. The contribution for the mother church in Jerusalem, 16:1-4

D. Concluding remarks

1. Paul’s (and his fellow ministers) travel plans, 16:5-12

2. Final exhortation and greetings, 16:13-24

X. SUGGESTED READINGS ON PAUL’S THOUGHT

A. The Mind of St. Paul, William Barclay, published by Harper & Row

B. Paul, Apostle of the Heart Set Free, F. F. Bruce, published by
Eerdmans

C. The Origins of Paul’s Religion, J. Gresham Machen, published by
Eerdmans

D. Paul, An Outline of His Theology, Herman Ridderbos (translated by
John De Witt), published by Eerdmans

E. Epochs in the Life of Paul, A. T. Robertson, published by Baker

F. A Man In Christ, James S. Stewart, published by Harper & Row

G. Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, published by IVP

H. Paul in the Roman World, The Conflict at Corinth, Robert M. Grant,
published by Westminister, John Knox Press

I. Philo and Paul Among the Sophists, Bruce W. Winter, published by
Eerdmans

J. After Paul Left Corinth, Bruce W. Winter

XI. TERMS AND PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. sanctified, 1:2

2. ages, 2:7,8

3. “the depths of God,” 2:10

4. “God’s building,” 3:9

5. “you are a temple of God,” 3:16,17

6. “the mysteries of God,” 4:1

7. “deliver such a one to Satan,” 5:5

8. “we shall judge angels,” 6:3

9. “and such were some of you,” 6:11

10. “concerning virgins,” 7:25

11. “I myself will not be disqualified,” 9:27

12. “sacrifice to demons,” 10:20

13. “drink the cup of the Lord,” 10:21

14. “because of the angels,” 11:10

15. “I hear divisions exist among you,” 11:18

16. “Jesus is accursed,” 12:3

17. “distinguishing spirits,” 12:10

18. clanging symbol, 13:1

19. “when the perfect comes,” 13:10

20. “see in a mirror dimly,” 13:12

21. prophesy, 14:39

22. abolished, 15:24

23. “the collection for the saints,” 16:1

XII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. Sosthenes, 1:1

2. Chloe’s people, 1:11

3. Apollos, 1:12

4. Cephas, 1:12

5. Crispus and Gaius, 1:14

6. “the rulers of this age,” 2:6,8

7. natural man, 2:14

8. spiritual man, 3:1

9. babes in Christ, 3:1

10. Cephas, 15:5

11. the twelve, 15:5

12. James, 15:7

XIII. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Corinth, 1:2

2. churches of Galatia, 16:1

3. Jerusalem, 16:3

4. Macedonia, 16:5

5. Ephesus, 16:8

6. Achaia, 16:15

7. Asia, 16:19

XIV. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Why did the Jews reject Jesus as the Messiah?

2. Why did the Greeks reject Jesus?

3. Why does Paul make such negative statements about philosophy in 1:18-25
and 2:1-5?

4. Explain the implications of 1:26-31.

5. To whom does 3:10-15 refer?

6. Why was the church condemned by Paul in 5:1-8?

7. Does 6:1-11 preclude Christians from law suits today?

8. Is Paul implying that celibacy is the will of God in chapter 7?

9. Does 7:12-13 imply that believers can marry unbelievers?

10. How is chapter 8 like Romans 14?

11. Why would Paul not take money from the church in Corinth? (9:3-18)

12. Explain the implications of 9:19-23.

13. Explain 10:1-13 in your own words.

14. Why is 10:13 such a wonderful verse for believers?

15. State the spiritual principle of 10:23 in your own words.

16. How does 11:5 contradict 14:34?

17. Does 11:30 mean some believers had died by taking the Lord’s Supper?

18. Explain the circumstances of Paul’s statement in 11:34.

19. What is the implication of the spiritual principle in 11:7?

20. How are spiritual gifts related to natural talents? When do believers
receive their spiritual gift(s)?

21. How does 12:29-30 answer the question, “Should all believers speak in
tongues”? (14:5)

22. In 13:8 what will pass away and what will remain?

23. How does chapter 14 delineate the use of tongues in public worship?

24. What three groups does Paul limit in public worship in chapter 14?

25. List the points of the gospel in 15:1-4.

26. When in the life of Jesus does 15:6 occur?

27. How is 15:22 like Romans 5:12-21?

INTRODUCTION TO II CORINTHIANS

I. OPENING STATEMENTS

A. This book, more than any other letter of Paul, shows us the heart and mind
of the Apostle to the Gentiles. It is the closest we have to his
spiritual/pastoral autobiography.

B. This book may be Paul’s most accomplished rhetorical work. Raymond E.
Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament, says, “it may well be the
most oratorically persuasive of all Paul’s writings” p. 541. However, this was
done to refute the Sophists who had come to Corinth and attacked Paul’s public
speaking methods as well as his content (i.e. his attack on wisdom in I Cor.
1-4).

C. This book is a strange combination, like Paul himself, of spiritual highs
and lows, of free-flowing emotions ranging from anger to great joy.

D. This book is truly a letter and as a letter it is only one half of a
conversation. Many of the logical antecedents and circumstances behind Paul’s
responses have been lost. This is a good example of the truth that the epistles
of the New Testament were originally written as correspondence to specific
needs, not independent theological dissertations.

E. This book has been neglected by scholarship and in preaching. This is
unfortunate because it is the source of Paul’s most definitive discussion on
suffering in the Christian life.

F. For pastors, this book offers insightful guidelines on how to deal with
problems within local churches. Paul gives us all an example to follow amidst
personal attacks and misunderstandings.

II. AUTHOR

A. Even amidst all of the modern denials of the traditional authorship of
biblical books, this book has never been denied to Paul.

B. It is so autobiographical and so difficult to understand some of its
phrases that the possibility of someone trying to mimic Paul by writing a book
like this is highly improbable. The difficulty and specificity of the letter
speak of its genuineness. It is true that many NT scholars think that II
Corinthians is a composite letter combining several separate letters of Paul
into one. I hold to its unity because:

1. There is no hint of disunity in any of the ancient Greek manuscripts.

a. No variations of the literary units

b. No manuscript which does not contain all thirteen chapters.

2. Although II Cor. 13 was apparently unknown to Clement of Rome in A.D. 96,
it is quoted by Polycarp in A.D. 105.

3. The book is understandable as a unit. There seem to be certain themes
which show its unity, such as “suffering.”

4. The internal evidence is too limited to defend a radical dissection of II
Corinthians.

C. Paul is stated to be the author in 1:1 and 10:1.

III. DATE

A. The date of II Corinthians is inseparably linked to I Corinthians and the
book of Acts.

B. Acts 18:1-18 and 20:2-3 relate Paul’s being in Corinth, but there also
seems to have been at least one unrecorded trip (II Corinthians 2:1; with a
third visit mentioned in 12:14; 13:1-2).

C. The major question is the time relationship between Paul’s visits and his
letters to Corinth.

D. The real problem with dating the events related to Corinth is that we have
no external evidence or information between Acts 18:1-18 and Acts 20:2-3, except
the ambiguous internal evidence of the Corinthian letters themselves.

E. Paul’s contacts with the Corinthian Church—A proposed reconstruction

DATE	VISIT	LETTER
A.D. 50-52 Paul’s Second Missionary Journey	a. On Paul’s Second Missionary Journey he stayed in Corinth eighteen months (cf. Acts 18:1-11)
A.D. 52 Gallio was proconsul from A.D. 52 (cf. Acts 18:12-17)		a. I Cor. 5:9-11 seems to refer to a letter about an immoral situation in the church. This letter is unknown unless: (1) as some suppose, that II Cor. 6:14-7:1 is part of it or (2) that II Cor. 2:3,4,9 are epistolary aorists and refer to II Corinthians.
A.D. 56 (Spring)	b. Paul hears about problems in the church while he is in Ephesus from two sources: (1) Chloe’s people, I Cor. 1:11 and (2) Stephanas, Forltunatus, and Achaicus, I Cor. 16:17. They apparently brought a letter from the Corinthian house churches containing questions
A.D. 56 (Winter) or a.d. 57 (Winter)		b. Paul answers these questions (cf. I Cor. 7:1,25; 8:1; 12:1; 16:1,2) by writing I Corinthians. Timothy (cf. I Cor. 4:17) takes the response from Ephesus (cf. I Cor. 16:8) to Corinth. Timothy was not able to solve the problems in the church.
	c. Paul made an emergency, painful visit to Corinth (not recorded in Acts, cf. II Cor. 2:1). It was not successful, but he vowed to return.	c. Paul wrote a severe letter (cf. II Cor. 2:3-4:9; 7:8-12) to the Corinthian house churches which was delivered by Titus (cf. II Cor. 2:13; 7:13-15). This letter is unknown, unless, as some suppose, part of it is in II Cor. 10-13.
	d. Paul planned to meet Titus in Troas, but Titus did not come, so Paul went to Macedonia (cf. II Cor. 2:13; 7:5,13), possibly Philippi (cf. MSS Bc, K, L, P).	d. He found Titus and heard that the church had responded to his leadership and he then wrote II Corinthians in great thanksgiving (cf. 7:11-16). It was delivered by Titus
A.D. 57-58 (Winter)	e. Paul’s last recorded visit to Corinth seems to be referred to in Acts 20:2- 3. Although it does not mention Corinth by name, it is assumed. He stayed there during the winter months.	e. The marked mood change exists between chapters 1-9 and 10-13. This is explained by some scholars: (1) more bad news (itinerant false teachers from Jerusalem) from the Corinthian house churches after Paul had written chapters 1-9 (F. F. Bruce) or (2) chapters 1-9 are Paul’s message to the faithful believers in Corinth, while chapters 10-13 are Paul’s message to the rebellious believers in Corinth (from J. W. MacGorman).

IV. HOW MANY LETTERS DID PAUL WRITE TO CORINTH

A. Just two, I and II Corinthians

B. Three, with one letter being lost

C. Four, with two lost letters

D. Some modern scholars find the lost letters in II Corinthians

1. previous letter (I Cor. 5:9) in II Cor. 6:14-7:1

2. severe letter (II Cor. 2:3-4,9; 7:8-12) in II Cor. 10-13

E. Five, with II Cor. 10-13 being the fifth letter, sent after Titus’ report
relating the further bad news

F. I hold to C (see also H. C. Thiessen, Introduction to the New
Testament, p. 209)

1. previous letter—lost (I Cor. 5:9)

2. I Corinthians

3. severe letter—lost (II Cor. 2:1-11, 7:8-12)

4. II Corinthians

V. PAUL’S ENEMIES AT CORINTH

A. In II Corinthians the problem seems to be with several factions dominating
the different house churches (not necessarily the same factions as in I
Corinthians, but probably).

1. a group of believers supporting traditional Roman culture and customs

2. a group of believers supporting traditional Greek rhetorical training

3. a group of believers supporting traditional Jewish culture and customs

4. a group of believers from the powerless and the disenfranchised of society

B. The arrival of Jewish troublemakers from Palestine caused additional
controversy (cf. II Cor. 10-13). They are different from the Judaziers of
Galatians and the Jewish/Greek legalists of Colossians. They were probably
rhetorically trained, charismatic teachers, similar to Apollos.

C. Here are some of the charges leveled against Paul to which he responds.

1. Paul was fickle (i.e. his travel plans changed, cf. 1:15ff).

2. Paul was a powerful writer, but weak in personal speech (cf. 10:10).

3. Paul was not a polished orator (cf. 10:10; 11:6).

4. Paul did not accept money (cf. 11:7ff; 12:13ff).

5. Paul was not a true Apostle (cf. 11:5,13; 12:4).

6. Paul was not an orthodox Jew (cf. 11:21ff).

7. Paul did not have direct revelation and spiritual visions as they had (cf.
12:1ff).

VI. OCCASION AND PURPOSE OF II CORINTHIANS

A. Thankfulness for the church’s positive response to Paul’s leadership (cf.
2:12,13; 7:11-16)

B. Preparation for Paul’s third visit (cf. 10:1-11). His second was
apparently painful and unsuccessful. The changed emotional tone of chapters
10-13 is obvious. Some have asserted that it is the result of several of Paul’s
letters to the church at Corinth being combined into II Corinthians. It is also
possible that Paul wrote these after he heard about a new outbreak of opposition
within the Corinthian fellowship. It is an emotional addendum.

C. Refuting the itinerant Jewish false teachers (cf. 10-12) who had rejected
Paul’s:

1. person

2. motives

3. authority

4. delivery style

5. gospel message

VII. POSSIBLE LITERARY UNITS

A. Outlining this book is extremely difficult because of:

1. mood swings

2. variety of subjects

3. extended parentheses (2:14-7:1 or 7:4)

4. our limited knowledge of the local situation

B. However, there are obviously three major subject divisions:

1. Paul responds to Titus’ message and relates his travel plans, chapters 1-7
(there is a major parenthesis dealing with Paul’s apostolic ministry, 2:14-7:1
or 7:4)

2. Paul’s encouragement for the completion of the contribution for the
Jerusalem church, chapters 8-9

3. Paul’s defense of his leadership, chapters 10-13

C. I affirm the unity of II Corinthians because

1. There is no hint of disunity in any of the ancient Greek manuscripts

a. no variations of the literary units

b. no manuscript which does not contain all thirteen chapters

2. Although II Cor. 13 was apparently unknown to Clement of Rome in A.D. 96,
it is quoted by Polycarp in A.D. 105.

3. The book is understandable as a unit. There seems to be certain themes
which show its unity, such as “suffering.”

4. The internal evidence is too limited to defend a radical dissection of II
Corinthians.

VIII. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. Grace and peace, 1:2

2. “in the day of our Lord Jesus,” 1:14

3. sealed, 1:22

4. “leads us in triumph,” 2:14

5. sweet aroma, 2:14

6. “peddling the word of God,” 2:17

7. “letters of commendation,” 3:1

8. “from the Lord, the Spirit,” 3:18

9. outer man, 4:16

10. inner man, 4″16

11. earthly tent, 5:1

12. “the Spirit as a pledge,” 5:5

13. new creature, 5:17

14. -reconciled, 5:18

15. “the weapons of our warfare are not of the flesh,” 10:4

16. angel of light, 11:14

17. the third heaven, 12:2

18. Paradise, 12:4

19. holy kiss, 13:12

IX. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “the god of this world,” 4:4

2. Belial, 6:15

3. Titus, 7:6

X. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Achaia, 1:1

2. Asia, 1:8

3. Macedonia, 1:16

4. Judea, 1:16

5. Corinth, 1:23

6. Troas, 2:12

7. Damascus, 11:32

XI. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What are the theological implications of 1:20?

2. Explain in your own words 3:6.

3. How is the term “veil” used in two senses in chapter 3? (4:3)

4. List Paul’s suffering in 4:7-11; 6:4-10; 11:23-28

5. Will believers appear before the judgment seat of Christ? If so, for what?

6. Explain in your own words the spiritual principle of 5:14-15.

7. What doctrine is 5:21 stating?

8. List the principles of giving found in chapters 8-9.

9. How do Paul’s enemies describe him in 10:10?

10. Who is Paul referring to in 11:4?

11. List the ways Paul compares himself to others in 11:21-30.

12. What was Paul’s thorn in the flesh? (12:7)

INTRODUCTION TO GALATIANS

I. INTRODUCTION

A. The book of Galatians is one of the clearest expressions of the radically
new and free truth of salvation by grace alone, through faith alone. It is often
called “The Magna Carta of Christian Liberty.”

B. This letter stirred the fires of the Protestant Reformation.

1. Martin Luther said, “the little book of Galatians is my letter; I have
betrothed myself to it; it is my wife.”

2. John Wesley found lasting peace from a sermon on Galatians.

3. In his Study Guide Commentary, p. 11, Curtis Vaughan wrote, “few
books have more profoundly influenced the minds of men, have so significantly
shaped the course of human history, or continued to speak with such relevance to
the deepest needs of modern life.”

C. This doctrinally oriented letter, possibly Paul’s first, was a precursor
to Romans and its development of the doctrine of justification by faith apart
from Judaism’s emphasis on keeping the Law:

1. Salvation cannot be found in both Law and grace.

2. Salvation must be found in either Law or grace.

3. Christlikeness will follow a true conversion.

4. Beware of Christian legalism.

D. This radically free salvation, by grace alone through faith alone, is
desperately needed in our day because of the recurrent, subtle pull of our
self-oriented, works-oriented religious consciousness. In every age the simple
truth of God’s initiating, self-giving, unconditional love mediated through
human repentance and humble faith is challenged! It is not that the false
teachers were rejecting Christ’s central place in redemption, but they were
adding to Him. It is not what we add,
but that we add anything!

II. AUTHOR

Paul’s authorship of this letter has never been seriously doubted, as it
forms a significant pillar of the Pauline Corpus. Galatians is very
autobiographical and personal. It is highly emotional yet precisely logical.

III. DATE AND RECIPIENTS

A. These two aspects of background material must be dealt with together
because two opposing theories of the identities of the recipients affect the
dating of the letter. Both theories have logical weight and limited biblical
evidence.

B. The two theories are:

1. The traditional theory that was unanimous until the eighteenth century.

a. It is called the “Northern Galatian Theory.”

b. It assumes that “Galatia” refers to the ethnic Galatians of the northern
central plateau of Turkey (cf. I Pet. 1:1). These ethnic Galatians were Celts
(Greek Keltoi or Latin
Gall) who invaded this area in the third century B.C. They were called
“Gallo-Graecians” to distinguish them from their western European brothers. They
were defeated in 230 B.C. by Attalus I, the King of Pergamum. Their geographical
influence was limited to northern central Asia Minor or modern Turkey.

c. If this ethnic group is assumed, then the date would be the mid 50’s
during Paul’s second or third missionary journey. Paul’s traveling companions
would be Silas and Timothy.

d. Some have linked Paul’s illness in Gal. 4:13 to malaria. They assert that
Paul went north into the highlands to get away from the marshy,
malaria-infested, coastal lowlands.

2. The second theory is championed by Sir Wm. M. Ramsay,
St. Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen, New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons,
1896.

a. As the traditional theory defined “Galatia” as ethnic, this theory defines
it as administrative. It seems that Paul often used Roman provincial names (cf.
I Cor. 16:19; II Cor. 1:1; 8:1, etc.) The Roman province of “Galatia” included a
larger area than ethnic “Galatia.” These ethnic Celts supported Rome very early
and were rewarded with more local autonomy and expanded territorial authority.
If this large area was known as “Galatia,” then it is possible that Paul’s first
missionary journey to these southern cities of Antioch in Pisidia, Lystra, Derbe
and Iconium, recorded in Acts 13-14, is the location of these churches.

b. If one assumes this “Southern Theory,” the date would be very early—close
to, but before, the “Jerusalem Council” of Acts 15, which addresses the same
subject matter as the book of Galatians. The Council occurred in A.D. 48-49 and
the letter was probably written during the same period. If this is true,
Galatians is the first letter of Paul in our New Testament.

c. Some evidences for the southern Galatian theory:

(1) There is no mention of Paul’s traveling companions by name but Barnabas
is mentioned three times (cf. 2:1,9,13). This fits the first missionary journey
of Paul.

(2) It is mentioned that Titus was not circumcised (cf. 2:1-5). This fits
best before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15.

(3) The mention of Peter (cf. 2:11-14) and the problem of fellowship with
Gentiles fits best before the Jerusalem Council.

(4) When the money was taken to Jerusalem several companions of Paul from
different areas (cf. Acts 20:4) were listed. None, however, were listed from
northern Galatia cities, although we know these ethnic Galatian churches
participated (cf. I Cor. 16:1).

3. For the detailed presentation of the different arguments concerning these
theories consult a technical commentary. They each have valid points but at this
point in time there is no consensus, but the “Southern Theory” seems to fit all
of the facts best.

C. Relationship of Galatians to Acts:

1. Paul made five visits to Jerusalem, recorded by Luke in the book of Acts:

a. 9:26-30, after his conversion

b. 11:30; 12:25, to bring famine relief from the Gentile churches

c. 15:1-30, the Jerusalem Council

d. 18:22, brief visit

e. 21:15ff., another explanation of Gentile work

2. There are two visits to Jerusalem recorded in Galatians:

a. 1:18, after three years

b. 2:1, after fourteen years

3. It seems most probable that Acts 9:26 is related to Gal. 1:18. Acts 11:30
& 15:1ff. are the setting of unrecorded meetings which are mentioned in Gal.
2:1.

4. There are some differences between the Acts 15 and Gal. 2 accounts but
this is probably due to:

a. different perspectives

b. different purposes of Luke and Paul

c. the fact that Gal. 2 may have occurred sometime before the meeting
described in Acts 15 but in conjunction with it.

D. Possible chronology of Paul’s writings following F. F. Bruce and Murry
Harris with minor adaptations.

Book Date Place of Writing Relation
to Acts

1. Galatians 48 Syrian Antioch 14:28; 15:2

2. I Thessalonians 50 Corinth 18:5

3. II Thessalonians 50 Corinth

4. I Corinthians 55 Ephesus 19:20

5. II Corinthians 56 Macedonia 20:2

6. Romans 57 Corinth 20:3

7.-10. Prison Letters

Colossians early 60’s Rome

Ephesians early 60’s Rome

Philemon early 60’s Rome

Philippians late 62-63 Rome 28:30-31

11.-13. Fourth Missionary Journey

I Timothy 63 (or later, Macedonia

Titus 63 but before Ephesus (?)

II Timothy 64 A.D. 68) Rome

IV. PURPOSE OF THE LETTER

A. Paul addressed three distinct areas of concern about the message of the
false teachers. These heretics have been labeled “Judaizers” because they
believed that one had to become a Jew before he could become a Christian (cf.
6:12). His concerns revolved around the charges of the Judaizers:

1. Paul was not truly an Apostle like the Twelve (cf. Acts 1:21-22);
therefore, he was dependent on their authority or at least the authority of the
Mother Church in Jerusalem.

2. Paul’s message was different from theirs, and thus, false. This seems
directly related to the concept of “justification by faith apart from the Law.”
The Apostles in Jerusalem were still very Jewish in their personal lives.

3. An element of libertinism was connected in some way with these churches
(cf. 5:18-6:8). Exactly how this is to be explained is debated. Some have even
seen two target groups in Paul’s letter: Judaizers and gnostics (cf. 4:8-11).
However, it seems best to relate these verses to pagan practices. The Jews were
concerned about the lifestyle of Gentiles. How did Paul’s radical free grace
relate to pagan idolatry and excess?

B. Doctrinally, this letter is very similar to Paul’s letter to the Romans.
These two books contain Paul’s major doctrines repeated and developed in
different settings.

V. BRIEF OUTLINE

A. Prologue, 1:1-10

1. general introduction to the book

2. the occasion for writing the book

B. Paul defends his Apostleship, 1:11-2:14

C. Paul defends the doctrinal truths of his gospel, 2:15-4:20

D. Paul defends the practical implications of his gospel, 5:1-6:10

E. Personal summary and closing, 6:11-18

VI. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “this present evil age,” 1:4

2. “a different gospel,” 1:6

3. Judaism, 1:13

4. ancestral traditions, 1:14

5. “may it never be,” 2:17

6. “you foolish Galatians,” 3:1,3

7. bewitched, 3:1

8. “if indeed it was in vain,” 3:4; 4:11

9. “under a curse,” 3:10

10. “his seed,” 3:16

11. “having been ordained through angels by the agency of a mediator,” 3:19

12. “we were kept in custody under the law,” 3:23

13. “the elemental things,” 4:3,9

14. Abba, 4:6

15. “a bodily illness,” 4:13

16. “by the bondwoman. . .by the free woman,” 4:23

17. allegorically, 4:24

18. “walk by the Spirit,” 5:16

19. “the fruit of the Spirit,” 5:22

20. “what large letters,” 6:11

21. “the brand-marks of Jesus,” 6:17

VII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “an angel from heaven,” 1:8

2. Cephas, 1:18

3. Barnabas, 2:1

4. Titus, 2:2

5. “those who were of reputation,” 2:2,6

6. “false brethren,” 2:4

7. “who were reputed to be pillars,” 2:9

8. “the party of the circumcision,” 2:12

9. “guardians and managers,” 4:2

10. Hagar, 4:25

VIII. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. churches of Galatia, 1:2

2. Arabia, 1:17

3. Damascus, 1:17

4. Syria, 1:21

5. Cilicia, 1:21

6. Antioch, 2:11

IX. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Explain in your own words 1:11-12.

2. When did Paul persecute the church of God? (1:13)

3. Why did some want Titus circumcised? (7:3)

4. Explain 2:6 in your own words.

5. Galatians 2:16 may be the theme of the whole book. Why?

6. Explain 2:20 in your own words.

7. How would you answer Paul’s question in 3:3?

8. Explain the significance of Paul’s quote of Gen. 15:6,8 in Gal. 3:6-8.

9. How was Jesus cursed? (3:13)

10. What is the purpose of the OT in light of 3:19?

11. Why is 3:22 such a good summary statement?

12. Why is 3:28 such a significant truth?

13. What was Paul’s bodily illness mentioned in 4:13?

14. What is the goal of Christianity? (4:19)

15. What is Paul’s theological point in 5:3?

16. Explain the proverb in 5:9.

17. What does 5:4 mean, “you have fallen from grace”?

18. How does 5:13 relate to Romans 14:1-15:13?

19. Explain 5:23 in your own words.

20. How are believers to relate to sinning believers? (6:1-5)

21. What is the spiritual principle stated in 6:7?

22. How does 6:10 relate to those outside the believing community?

INTRODUCTION TO EPHESIANS

I. OPENING STATEMENTS

A. The truths of this book have impacted the lives of many saints

1. Samuel Coleridge called it “the divine composition of man”

2. John Calvin called it his favorite book of the Bible

3. John Knox asked that Calvin’s sermons on Ephesians be read to him on his
deathbed

B. This book has been called the “crowning jewel,” or capstone, of Paul’s
theology. All of the great themes of Paul are expressed in wonderful summary
fashion.

C. As God used Romans to instigate the Reformation, He will use Ephesians to
reunite splintered Christendom. Believers’ unity and commonality in Christ far
overshadow their differences.

II. AUTHOR

A. Paul

1. Expressly stated in 1:1, 3:1

2. Reference to imprisonment (probably in Rome) in 3:1; 4:1; 6:20

3. Almost unanimous church tradition

a. Clement of Rome, in A.D. 95, wrote a letter to Corinth that quotes 4:4-6

b. Ignatius (A.D. 30-107) quotes from 1:9; 2:19; 3:4-9

c. Polycarp (A.D. 65-155), the disciple of John the Apostle, and the bishop
of Smyrna asserts Paul’s authorship

d. Irenaeus (A.D. 130-200) asserts Paul’s authorship

e. Clement of Alexandria (A.D. 150-210) asserts Paul’s authorship

4. It is listed in

a. Marcion’s (who came to Rome in A.D. 140’s) list of accepted books

b. Muratorian Fragment (A.D. 180-200), a list of canonical books from Rome
and placed it in Paul’s writings

5. The closings of both Colossians and Ephesians have 29 words that are
almost exactly the same in Greek (there are two additional words in
Colossians.).

B. Another Author

1. Erasmus was the first to doubt Paul’s authorship based on

a. Style – long sentences that are very uncharacteristic of Paul’s other
letters

b. No personal greetings

c. Unique vocabulary

2. 18th-Century critical scholarship began to deny Paul’s authorship

a. Several verses seem to be from a second generation believer, 2:20; 3:5

b. Theological words were used with differing definitions (example:
“mystery”)

c. Uniqueness of the genre of a cyclical or circular letter

C. Answers to Erasmus’ points

1. The style is different because Paul had time to think when writing
Ephesians while in prison.

2. The absence of a personal greeting is explained by the fact that Ephesians
was a cyclical letter that was to be sent to many churches in the area. A Roman
postal route which included Ephesus and the Lycus River Valley can be seen in
Rev. 2-3. Paul wrote a twin letter, Colossians, to a specific group of three
churches which included several personal greetings.

3. The number of unique words in Ephesians is exactly the same as the number
of unique words (hapax legomena) in Romans. The purpose, subject matter,
recipients and occasion explain the use of new words.

4. Paul speaks of “apostles and prophets” in I Cor. 12:28, which is similar
to 2:20 and 3:5. No one denies Paul’s authorship of I Corinthians.

III. THE LITERARY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COLOSSIANS AND EPHESIANS

A. The historical relationship between Colossians and Ephesians

1. Epaphras (Col. 1:7; 4:12; Philemon 23) was converted during Paul’s
Ephesian campaign (Acts 19)

a. He took his newly found faith back to his home area, the Lycus River
Valley.

b. He started three churches—in Hierapolis, Laodicea and Colossae.

c. Epaphras sought Paul for advice on how to combat this merging of world
views by the heretics. Paul was in prison at Rome (early 60’s).

2. False teachers came and began to merge the gospel with Greek ontology

a. spirit and matter were co-eternal

b. spirit (God) was good

c. matter (creation) was evil

d. a series of eons (angelic levels) existed between the good high God and a
lesser god who formed matter

e. salvation was based on knowledge of secret passwords which helped people
progress through the eons (angelic levels)

B. The literary relationship between Paul’s two letters

1. Paul heard of the heresy in these churches which he had never visited
personally from Epaphras.

2. Paul wrote a hard-hitting letter in short, emotional sentences, directed
at the false teachers. The central theme was the cosmic lordship of Jesus. This
is known as Paul’s letter to the Colossians.

3. Apparently, soon after writing Colossians, with time on his hands in
prison, he developed these same themes. Ephesians is characterized by long
sentences and developed theological concepts (1:3-14, 15-23; 2:1-10, 14-18,
19-22; 3:1-12, 14-19; 4:11-16; 6:13-20). It takes Colossians as a starting point
and draws out its theological implications. Its central theme is the unity of
all things in Christ, which was a contrast to the incipient gnostic concept.

C. Related literary and theological structure

1. Similarity of the basic structure

a. they have very similar openings

b. they have doctrinal sections dealing primarily with Christ

c. they have practical sections admonishing Christian lifestyle using the
same categories, terms and phrases

d. they have closing verses exactly alike in 29 consecutive words in Greek,
with only two different words added in Colossians.

2. Similarity of words or short phrases

Eph. 1:1c and Col. 1:2a “faithful”

Eph. 1:4 and Col. 1:22 “holy and blameless”

Eph. 1:7 and Col. 1:14 “redemption . . . forgiveness”

Eph. 1:10 and Col. 1:20 “all things . . . heaven . . . earth”

Eph. 1:15 and Col. 1:3-4 “heard . . . love for all the saints”

Eph. 1:18 and Col. 1:27 “the riches of the glory”

Eph. 2:1 and Col. 1:13 “you were dead”

Eph. 2:16 and Col. 1:20 “reconcile . . . cross”

Eph. 3:2 and Col. 1:25 “stewardship”

Eph. 3:3 and Col. 1:26,27 “mystery”

Eph. 4:3 and Col. 3:14 “unity”

Eph. 4:15 and Col. 2:19 “head” and “grow”

Eph. 4:24 and Col. 3:10,12,14 “put on . . . “

Eph. 4:31 and Col. 3:8 “anger,” “wrath,” “malice,” “slander”

Eph. 5:3 and Col. 3:5 “immorality,” “impurity,” “greed”

Eph. 5:5 and Col. 3:5 “idolatry” (coveting)

Eph. 5:6 and Col. 3:6 “the wrath of God”

Eph. 5:16 and Col. 4:5 “making the most of the time”

3. Exact phrases or sentences

Eph. 1:1a and Col. 1:1a

Eph. 1:1b and Col. 1:2a

Eph. 1:2a and Col. 1:2b

Eph. 1:13 and Col. 1:5

Eph. 2:1 and Col. 2:13

Eph. 2:5b and Col. 2:13c

Eph. 4:1b and Col. 1:10a

Eph. 6:21-22 and Col. 4:7-8 (29 consecutive words alike, except for “kai
syndoulos” in Colossians)

4. Similarity of phrases or sentences

Eph. 1:21 and Col. 1:16

Eph. 2:1 and Col. 1:13

Eph. 2:16 and Col. 1:20

Eph. 3:7a and Col. 1:23d, 25a

Eph. 3:8 and Col. 1:27

Eph. 4:2 and Col. 3:12

Eph. 4:29 and Col. 3:8; 4:6

Eph. 4:32b and Col.3:13b

Eph. 5:15 and Col. 4:5

Eph. 5:19-20 and Col. 3:16

5. Theologically synonymous concepts:

Eph. 1:3 and Col. 1:3 a prayer of thanks

Eph. 2:1,12 and Col. 1:21 alienation from God

Eph. 2:15 and Col. 2:14 hostility of Law

Eph. 4:1 and Col. 1:10 worthy walk

Eph. 4:15 and Col. 2:19 Christ’s body growing to maturity from Head

Eph. 4:19 and Col. 3:5 sexual impurity

Eph. 4:22,31 and Col. 3:8 “lay aside” sins

Eph. 4:32 and Col. 3:12-13 Christians kind to one another

Eph. 5:4 and Col. 3:8 Christian speech

Eph. 5:18 and Col. 3:16 filling of Spirit = word of Christ

Eph. 5:20 and Col. 3:17 thanksgiving to God for all things

Eph. 5:22 and Col. 3:18 wives be subject to husbands

Eph. 5:25 and Col. 3:19 husbands love your wives

Eph. 6:1 and Col. 3:20 children obey your parents

Eph. 6:4 and Col. 3:21 fathers do not provoke children

Eph. 6:5 and Col. 3:22 slaves obey masters

Eph. 6:9 and Col. 4:1 masters and slaves

Eph. 6:18 and Col. 4:2-4 Paul’s request for prayer

6. Terms used in both Colossians and Ephesians which are not found in other
Pauline literature

a. “fullness”

Eph. 1:23 “the fullness of Him who fills all in all”

Eph. 3:19 “be filled up to all the fullness of God”

Eph. 4:13 “to the fullness of Christ”

Col. 1:19 “for all the fullness to dwell in Him”

Col. 2:9 “for in Him all the fullness of Deity dwells”

b. Christ as “head” of the church

Eph. 4:15, 5:23 and Col. 1:18;2:19

c. “alienated”

Eph. 2:12; 4:18 and Col. 1:21

d. “redeeming the time”

Eph. 5:16 and Col. 4:5

e. “rooted”

Eph. 3:17 and Col. 2:7

f. “the word of truth, the gospel”

Eph. 1:13 and Col. 1:5

g. “forbearing”

Eph. 4:2 and Col. 3:13

h. unusual phrasing and terms (“held together,” “supply”)

Eph. 4:16 and Col. 2:19

D. Summary

1. Over one third of the words in Colossians are in Ephesians. It has been
estimated that 75 of the 155 verses in Ephesians have a parallel in Colossians.
Both claim Paul’s authorship while in prison.

2. Both were delivered by Paul’s friend Tychicus.

3. Both were sent to the same area (Asia Minor).

4. Both deal with the same Christological topic.

5. Both emphasize Christ as head of the church.

6. Both encourage appropriate Christian living.

E. Major Points of Dissimilarity

1. The church was always local in Colossians but universal in Ephesians.
This may be due to the cyclical nature of the letter of Ephesians.

2. Heresy, which was such a prominent feature of Colossians, is not directly
mentioned in Ephesians. However, both letters use characteristic gnostic terms
(“wisdom,” “knowledge,” “fullness,” “mystery,” “principalities and powers” and
“stewardship.”)

3. The second coming is immediate in Colossians but delayed in Ephesians.
The church was, and is, called to serve in a fallen world. (2:7; 3:21; 4:13).

4. Several characteristically Pauline terms are used differently. One
example is the term “mystery.” In Colossians the mystery is Christ (Col.
1:26-27; 2:2; 4:3), but in Ephesians (1:9; 5:32) it is God’s previously hidden,
but now revealed, plan for the unity of Gentiles and Jews.

5. Ephesians has several Old Testament allusions (1:22—Ps. 8; 2:17—Isa.
57:19) (2:20—Ps. 118:22) (4:8—Ps. 68:18) (4:26—Ps. 4:4) (5:15—Isa. 26:19, 51:17,
52:1, 60:1) (5:3—Gen. 3:24) (6:2—3-Exod. 20:12) (6:14—Isa. 11:5, 59:17)
(6:15—Isa. 52:7), but there are only one or two in Colossians (2:3—Isa. 11:2) or
(2:22—Isa. 29:13).

F. Though very similar in words, phrases and often outline, the letters also
include unique truths.

1. The Trinitarian blessing of grace – Eph. 1:3-14

2. The grace passage – Eph. 2:1-10

3. The merging of Jews and Gentiles into one new body – Eph. 2:11-3:13

4. The unity and giftedness of the body of Christ – Eph. 4:1-16

5. “Christ and the church” are the pattern for “husband and wife” Eph.
5:22-33

6. The spiritual warfare passage – Eph. 6:10-18

7. The Christological passage – Col. 1:13-18

8. Human religious ritual and rules – Col. 2:16-23

9. The theme of the cosmic significance of Christ in Colossians versus the
theme of the unity of all things in Christ in Ephesians

G. In conclusion, it seems best to follow A. T. Robertson and F. F. Bruce in
asserting that Paul wrote both letters in close proximity by developing the
thoughts of Colossians into a capstone presentation of truth.

IV. DATE

A. The date of this letter is linked to one of Paul’s imprisonments in
Ephesus, Philippi, Caesarea, or Rome. A Roman imprisonment best fits the facts
of Acts.

B. Once Rome is assumed to be the place of imprisonment, the question arises,
which time? Paul was in jail in the early 60’s, which is recorded in Acts, but
he was released and wrote the Pastoral letters (I & II Timothy and Titus) and
was then rearrested and killed before June 9, A.D. 68, which was the date of
Nero’s suicide.

C. The best educated guess for the writing of Ephesians is Paul’s first
imprisonment in Rome in the early 60’s.

D. Tychicus, along with Onesimus, probably took the letters of Colossians,
Ephesians and Philemon to Asia Minor.

E. Possible chronology of Paul’s writings following F. F. Bruce and Murry
Harris with minor adaptions.

Book
Date
Place of Writing
Relation to Acts

1. Galatians 48 (southern theory) Syrian
Antioch 14:28; 15:2

2. I Thessalonians 50 Corinth 18:5

3. II Thessalonians 50 Corinth

4. I Corinthians 55 Ephesus 19:20

5. II Corinthians 56 Macedonia 20:2

6. Romans 57 Corinth 20:3

7.- 10.

Colossians early 60’s (prison) Rome

Ephesians early 60’s (prison) Rome 28:30-31

Philemon early 60’s (prison) Rome

Philippians late 61-62 (prison) Rome

11. I Timothy 63 (or later, but Macedonia

12. Titus 63 before Ephesus (?)

13. II Timothy 64 A.D. 68) Rome

V. RECIPIENTS

A. Many manuscripts (Chester Beatty Papyri, P⁴⁶; Sinaiticus, א;
Vaticanus, B; Origen’s Greek text, and Tertullain’s Greek text) omit “in
Ephesus” in 1:1. The RSV and Williams translations omit the phrase.

B. The Greek grammar of v. 1 can accommodate a place name. Possibly, as a
circular letter, the place name of the church was left blank so it could be
supplied when read aloud to the churches. This might explain the phrase in
Colossians 4:15-16, “letter from the Laodiceans,” which was possibly the Book of
Ephesians (Marcion called Ephesians by the title “letter to the Laodiceans”).

C. Ephesians was written primarily to Gentiles, 2:1; 4:17, whom Paul had not
personally met, 1:15; 3:2. The churches in the Lycus River Valley (Laodicea,
Hierapolis, and Colossae) were started not by Paul but by Epaphras (Col. 1:7;
4:12; Philemon 23).

VI. PURPOSE

A. The theme of the book is found in 1:10 and 4:1-10, which emphasizes the
unity of all things in Christ. Christ restores the image of God in humanity and
in the world (kosmos).

B. Ephesians is one of Paul’s four prison letters. The outlines of Ephesians
and Colossians are very similar. Colossians was written to combat the heresy of
incipient Gnosticism in the Lycus River Valley of Asia Minor. Ephesians was
written as a circular letter to the same area to prepare the other churches for
the coming heresy. Colossians is a terse, hard-hitting letter, while Ephesians
is an extended logical presentation of the same truths using very long
sentences: (1:3-14, 15-23; 2:1-9; 3:1-7, etc.).

VII. BRIEF OUTLINE

A. The book naturally divides into two parts (as do most of Paul’s writings)

1. Unity in Christ, chapters 1-3 (theology)

2. Unity in the Church, chapters 4-6 (application)

B. Suggested thematic outline

1. Traditional Pauline opening, 1:1-2

2. The Father’s plan for the unity of all things in Christ, 1:3-3:21

a. Paul’s praise to the Father, 1:3-14

(1) for the Father’s love before time

(2) for the Father’s love in His Son at the right time

(3) for the Father’s continuing love by the Spirit through time

b. Paul’s prayer to the Father for the churches, 1:15-23

(1) for the Father’s revelation in Christ to be understood

(2) for the Father’s power to work powerfully in believers

(3) for the Father’s elevation of Christ above all things

c. Paul’s understanding of the Father’s plan for all humanity, 2:1-3:13

(1) sinful mankind’s need

(2) the Father’s gracious provision

(3) mankind’s needed covenantal response

(4) the Father’s plan fully revealed

d. Paul’s prayer to the Father for the believers, 3:14-21

(1) to receive inner strength (by the Spirit)

(2) to fully understand the gospel (not in propositional truths only) in
experience and love

(3) to be filled with the fullness of God (which is Christ)

(4) all this from the God who is able

3. The Father’s desire for the unity of His new people, 4:1-6:20

a. The unity of the Triune God is reflected in the unity of His children,
4:1-16

(1) unity is not uniformity, but lifestyle love

(2) Deity is a tri-une unity

(3) spiritual gifts are for the good of the body, not individual honor

(4) unity demands ministry

(5) unity is under angelic attack

(6) unity is in Christ

b. Christian unity contrasted with pagan self centeredness, 4:17-5:14

(1) lay aside the deeds of the old life

(2) put on Christlikeness

c. The means of accomplishing and maintaining unity, 5:15-6:9

(1) ever be filled with the Spirit

(2) the Spirit-filled life described

(a) five participles, vv. 19-21

(b) three domestic examples

i husbands – wives

ii parents – children

iii masters – slaves

d. The struggle for Christlike unity, 6:10-20

(1) the spiritual battle

(2) God’s armor

(3) prayer’s power

4. Closing remarks, 6:21-24

VIII. THE PHILOSOPHICAL AND THEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF THE FALSE TEACHERS
(GNOSTICISM)

A. Gnostic beliefs of the first and second centuries:

1. An ontological (eternal) dualism between spirit (God) and matter (physical
things).

2. Spirit was good, while matter was evil.

3. A series of angelic levels (eons) between a holy high God and a
lesser god who structured evil matter.

4. The path to salvation

a. knowledge of the secret password which allowed movement through the
angelic spheres from earth to heaven,

b. a divine spark in all men although all would not understand or receive
saving knowledge,

c. knowledge came only to an elite group by special revelation.

5. Ethics

a. totally unrelated to the spiritual life (libertarians, antinomians)

b. crucial to salvation (legalists).

B. Contradictions with historical, biblical Christianity

1. separating the humanity and Deity of Christ (Gnostics said He could not be
fully God and fully human)

2. removing His vicarious death as the only way of salvation

3. substituting human knowledge for free divine grace.

IX. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. saints, 1:1

2. Lord, 1:2

3. heavenly places, 1:3

4. “before the foundation of the world,” 1:4

5. blameless, 1:4

6. predestined, 1:5

7. “redemption,” 1:7

8. mystery, 1:9

9. “the fullness of time,” 1:10

10. sealed, 1:13

11. pledge, 1:14

12. glory, 1:17

13. “seated Him at His right hand,” 1:20

14. “the fullness of Him who fills all in all,” 1:23

15. “the course of this world,” 2:2

16. “the gift of God,” 2:8

17. “fellow citizens,” 2:19

18. “the corner stone,” 2:20

19. “boldness and confident access,” 3:12

20. “the trickery of men,” 4:14

21. “by craftiness in deceitful scheming,” 4:14

22. “walk in love,” 5:2

23. “a fragrant aroma,” 5:2

24. “the kingdom of Christ and God,” 5:5

25. “be subject to one another,” 5:21

26. “the full armor of God,” 6:11

27. “gird up your loins,” 6:14

28. “sword of the Spirit,” 6:17

X. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. Gnostics

2. “the prince of the power of the air,” 2:2

3. Gentiles

4. apostles, 4:11

5. prophets, 4:11

6. evangelists, 4:11

7. the head, 4:15

8. the devil, 4:27

9. “the sons of disobedience,” 5:6

10. “the children of Light,” 5:8

11. “spiritual forces of wickedness,” 6:12

12. Tychicus, 6:21

XI. MAP LOCATIONS — NONE

XII. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What is the basic theme of 1:3-14?

2. Why is the phrase “to the praise of His glory” used three times in 1:3-14?

3. Why does Paul speak so often of “wisdom and insight” or “knowledge” in
this book?

4. To whom does 1:19 refer?

5. Explain the Jewish concept of two ages. (1:21)

6. Summarize the topic of 2:1-3.

7. Summarize the topic of 2:4-6.

8. Explain the historical allusion in 2:14.

9. What revelation is Paul talking about in 3:3?

10. Why does Paul call himself “the least of all saints”? (3:8)

11. Why is the word “one” used so often in 4:4-6?

12. What is Christ’s gift in 4:7?

13. Where in the OT is Paul’s quote in 4:8? Why is Paul’s quote different
from your OT?

14. Why is 4:12 so significant?

15. Does 5:5 limit those who can be saved?

16. How is being drunk related to being filled with the Spirit? (5:18)

17. Why are Christ’s love and sacrifice for the church related to the
Christian home? (5:25-33)

18. How are “honor” and “obey” related?

19. Why is 6:18 so needed today?

INTRODUCTION TO PHILIPPIANS

I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

A. This is one of Paul’s most informal letters. With this church he did not
feel the need to assert his Apostolic authority. His overflowing love for them
is obvious. He even allowed them to send him money (cf. 1:5,7; 4:15), which was
very unusual for him.

B. Paul is imprisoned, yet he uses the term for joy (noun and verb) over
sixteen times. His peace and hope were not based on circumstances.

C. There is an element of false teaching present in the church (cf. 3:2,
18-19). These heretics seem to be similar to those in the churches of Galatia,
who were called Judaizers. They insisted that one had to become a Jew before one
could be a Christian.

D. This letter includes an example of an early Christian hymn, creed, or
liturgical poem (cf. 2:6-11). It is one of the finest Christological passages in
the entire New Testament (cf. John 1:1-14; Col. 1:13-20; Heb. 1:2-3). Paul uses
it as an example of Christ’s humility to be imitated by every believer (cf.
2:1-5), not primarily in a doctrinal sense.

E. In a book of 104 verses, Jesus’ name or title occurs 51 times. It is
obvious who is central in Paul’s heart, mind and theology.

II. PHILIPPI AND MACEDONIA

A. The city of Philippi

1. In 356 B.C. it was captured and enlarged by Philip II of Macedon,
Alexander the Great’s father. The original Thracian village was named
Krenides (springs).The city was important because of the gold ore in the
region.

2. At the battle of Pydna in 168 B.C., the region became a Roman Province and
later one of four in Macedonia.

3. In 42 B.C., Brutus and Cassius (Republicans) fought Antony and Octavian
(Imperial) near Philippi, over governmental reform in Rome. After that battle,
Antony settled some of his victorious veterans here.

4. In 31 B.C., after the battle of Actium in which Octavian defeated Antony,
Antony’s supporters in Rome were deposed and exiled here.

5. In 31 B.C. Philippi became a Roman Colony (cf. Acts 16:12). The
townspeople were declared citizens of Rome. Latin was spoken and the city became
like a little Rome. It was located on the Ignatian Way, the major east-to-west
Roman highway. The special privileges they enjoyed as Roman citizens were:

a. no poll taxes and no land taxes

b. the right to buy and sell property

c. all protection and rights of Roman law

d. special local governmental leaders (praetors and lictors)

B. The gospel comes to Philippi

1. On Paul’s second missionary journey he wanted to turn north to enter north
central Asia (modern Turkey, biblical Bithynia). Instead, in a vision he saw a
man (possibly Luke) of Macedonia (northern Greece) calling to him to come and
help them (Acts 16:6-10). By this vision the Spirit directed Paul to Europe.

2. Paul was accompanied by his helpers

a. Silas (Silvanus)

(1) Silas was a leader from the Jerusalem church and a prophet who replaced
Barnabas as Paul’s missionary co-worker (cf. Acts 15:15:22,32; 36-41);

(2) Silas and Paul were both imprisoned at Philippi (Acts 16:16-26);

(3) Paul always called him Silvanus (cf. II Cor. 1:19; I Thess. 1:1; II
Thess. 1:1);

(4) It is possible that Silas later became a companion of Peter, as John Mark
did (cf. I Pet. 5:12).

b. Timothy

(1) he was a convert from Paul’s first missionary journey (cf. Acts 16:1-2;
II Tim. 1:5; 3:15);

(2) his grandmother and mother were Jewish, but his father was Greek (cf.
Acts 16:1; II Tim. 1:5);

(3) because he was well spoken of by the brothers (cf. Acts 16:2) and Paul
saw the gifts of ministry in him (cf. I Tim. 4:14; II Tim. 1:6), he chose him as
a helper to replace John Mark (cf. Acts 13:13);

(4) Paul circumcised Timothy so that he would be accepted by the Jews (cf.
Acts 16:3);

(5) Timothy became Paul’s trusted apostolic representative (cf. Phil.
2:19-22; I Cor. 4:17; 3:2,6; II Cor. 1:1,19).

c. Luke

(1) the anonymous, but probable, author of the Gospel of Luke and Acts;

(2) he was apparently a Gentile physician (cf. Col. 4:14). Some think the
term “physician” meant “highly educated.” It is certainly true that he was
informed in several technical areas besides medicine, such as sailing. However,
Jesus used this same Greek term for “physician” (cf. Matt. 9:12; Mark 2:17;
5:26; Luke 4:23; 5:31);

(3) Paul’s traveling companion (cf. Acts 16:10-17; 20:5-15; 21:1-18;
27:1-28:16; Col. 4:14; II Tim. 4:11; Philemon 24);

(4) it is interesting that the “we” sections of Acts begin and end at
Philippi. In Paul, Apostle of the Heart Set Free, (p. 219), F. F. Bruce
suggests that Luke stayed on at Philippi to help the new converts and collect
the Gentile relief fund for the Jerusalem church.

(5) Luke may have been, in a sense, Paul’s personal physician. Paul had
several physical problems due to his conversion (cf. Acts 9:3,9), his ministry
(cf. II Cor. 4:7-12; 6:4-10; 11:23-29) and his special weakness (cf. II Cor.
12:1-10).

3. Paul returned to Philippi on his third missionary journey (cf. Acts
20:1-3,6). He had sent Silas and Timothy earlier (cf. Acts 19:19-24; Phil.
2:19-24).

C. Philippi as a Roman Colony (cf. Acts 16:12)

1. Paul used the status of this city as a Roman colony in his terminology

a. “praetorian guard,” 1:13

b. “citizenship,” 3:20 (Acts 16:22-34, 35-40)

c. “Caesar’s household,” 4:22

2. The city was populated by retired and exiled Roman soldiers. In many ways
it was “a little Rome.” The fads of Rome could be seen on the streets of
Philippi (cf. Acts 26:21).

3. Both Paul (Acts 22:25; 26:32) and Silas (Acts 16:37) were Roman citizens,
which allowed them legal rights and social standing.

D. The Province of Macedonia

1. Women had more social freedom and economic opportunities in Macedonia than
anywhere in the Roman Empire.

2. This is illustrated by

a. presence of many women worshiping by the river outside Philippi (cf. Acts
16:13);

b. the business woman Lydia (cf. Acts 16:14);

c. women co-workers in the gospel (cf. 4:2-3);

d. several leading women mentioned at Thessalonica (also in Macedonia, cf.
Acts 17:4).

III. AUTHOR

A. This highly personal letter has always been attributed to Paul. The first
person pronouns “I” and “my” appear 51 times.

B. It is quoted or alluded to by early authors (for a complete list of
citations see H.C. G. Moule, Studies in Philippians, pp. 20-21, published
by Kregel):

1. Clement of Rome in I Clement, written to the Corinthian church
about A.D. 95;

2. Ignatius, in Letters of Ignatius, about A.D. 110;

3. Polycarp, the Apostle John’s companion, in Letter to the Philippians,
about A.D. 110;

4. a Marcionite prologue (a follower of the heretic Marcion) to Paul’s letter
to the Philippians about A.D. 170.

5. Irenaeus, about A.D. 180;

6. Clement of Alexandria, about A.D. 190;

7. Tertullian of Carthage, about A.D. 210.

C. Although Timothy is mentioned along with Paul in 1:1, he was a co-worker,
not a co-author (although he may have acted as a scribe for Paul from time to
time).

IV. DATE

A. The date is contingent on where Paul was imprisoned (cf. II Cor. 11:23)

1. Philippi, Acts 16:23-40;

2. Ephesus, I Cor. 15:32; II Cor. 1:8;

3. Jerusalem/Caesarea, Acts 21:32-33:30;

4. Rome, Acts 28:30 (stated in Marcionite Prologue to Philippians)

B. Most scholars believe that a Roman imprisonment fits the context of Paul’s
life and Acts best. If so, a date in the early 60’s seems most likely.

C. This book is known as one of Paul’s “prison epistles” (Colossians,
Ephesians, Philemon, and Philippians). From internal considerations it appears
that Colossians, Ephesians and Philemon were written early during Paul’s Roman
imprisonment and taken together to Asia Minor by Tychicus (Col. 4:7; Eph. 6:21).
Philippians has a different tone. Paul seemed confident he would be released
from prison (1:17-26) and would get to visit them (2:24).

This structure also provides a period of time for: (1) Paul’s influence to
have reached the Imperial soldiers (cf. 1:13; Acts 28:16) and servants (cf.
4:22); and (2) several trips between Paul and messengers from the church at
Philippi.

V. PURPOSE(S) OF THE LETTER

A. To communicate Paul’s thanksgiving to this loving church that helped him
monetarily several times and even sent a helper, Epaphroditus (cf. 1:3-11;
2:19-30; 4:10-20). The letter also may have been written to explain
Epaphroditus’ early return home while Paul was still in prison.

B. To encourage the Philippians concerning his circumstances. The gospel was
actually progressing in prison. Paul was bound, but the gospel was unbound!

C. To encourage the Philippians amidst the false teachings which were very
similar to the Judaizers of Galatians. These heretics demanded that new converts
become Jewish first and then Christian (cf. Acts 15).

However because the list of sins in 3:19 fits the Greek false teachers
(gnostics) more than the Jewish, the identity of the heretics is uncertain. It
is possible that some believers had reverted back to their previous pagan
lifestyle.

D. To encourage the Philippian believers to joy even amidst internal and
external persecution. Paul’s joy was not dependent on circumstances but on his
faith in Christ.

This joy amidst problems was not a Stoic resignation, but a Christian
world-view and a constant struggle. Paul drew metaphors from several areas of
life to communicate the tension of the Christian life

1. athletic (cf. 3:12,14; 4:3);

2. military (cf. 1:7,12,15,16,17,22,28,30);

3. commercial (cf. 3:7,8; 4:15,17,18).

VI. CONTEXT OUTLINE

A. It is difficult to outline Philippians because it is so personal and
informal. Paul was talking to friends and trusted co-workers in Christ. His
heart overflowed before his mind could organize the thoughts. In wonderfully
transparent ways this book reveals the heart of the great Apostle to the
Gentiles. Paul felt “joy” in Christ, in any and all circumstances and in service
to the gospel!

B. Literary Units

1. a typical Pauline introduction, 1:1-2

a. greeting

(1) from Paul (and Timothy) 1:1

(2) to saints at Philippi (including overseers and deacons), 1:1

(3) Paul’s stylized prayer, 1:2

b. prayer, 1:3-11:

(1) co-workers in the gospel from the first, 1:5

(2) supporters of Paul’s ministry. 1:7

(3) Paul’s request for:

(a) abundant love, 1:9

(b) abundant knowledge, 1:9

(c) abundant discernment, 1:9

(d) abundant holiness, 1:10

2. Paul’s concern for them over their concern for him, in prison, 1:12-26

a. God had used his time in prison to spread the gospel to

(1) Imperial guard, 1:13

(2) others of Caesar’s house, 1:13; 4:22

(3) emboldened preachers, 1:14-18

b. Paul’s confidence for release because of:

(1) their prayers, 1:19

(2) Holy Spirit, 1:19

c. Paul’s confidence whether in release or in death, 1:20-26

3. Paul’s encouragement, 1:27-2:18:

a. call to Christlike unity amidst persecution, 1:27-30

b. live in Christlike self-lessness, 2:1-4

c. Christ our example, 2:5-11

d. in light of Christ’s example live in peace and unity, 2:12-18

4. Paul’s plans related to Philippi, 2:19-30

a. send Timothy, 2:19-24

b. return Epaphroditus, 2:25-30

5. stand firm against false teachers, 1:27; 4:1

a. the dogs, the false circumcisers, the Judaizers (Acts 15, Galatians),
3:1-4

b. Paul’s Jewish heritage:

(1) in light of the false teachers, 3:5-6

(2) in light of Christ, 3:7-16

c. Paul’s grief for them, 3:17-21

6. Paul repeats his admonitions:

a. unity, 4:1-3

b. Christlike characteristics, 4:4-9

7. Paul repeats his gratitude for the Philippians’ help

a. their recent gift, 4:10-14

b. their previous gift, 4:15-20 (1:5)

8. a typical Pauline closing, 4:21-23

VII. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “in my imprisonment,” 1:7,13

2. “the affection,” 1:8

3. “the day of Christ,” 1:10

4. “the fruit of righteousness,” 1:11

5. “praetorian guard,” 1:13

6. “to suffer for His sake,” 1:29

7. “emptied Himself,” 2:7

8. “in the likeness of men,” 2:7

9. confess, 2:11

10. “I did not run in vain, nor toil in vain,” 2:16

11. “I am being poured out as a drink offering,” 2:17

12. “beware of the dogs,” 3:2

13. “Hebrew of Hebrews,” 3:5

14. “they are enemies of the cross of Christ,” 3:18

15. “our citizenship is in heaven,” 3:20

16. “whose names are in the book of life,” 4:3

VIII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. overseers, 1:1

2. deacons, 1:1

3. Timothy, 2:19

4. Epaphroditus, 2:25

5. “false circumcision,” 3:2

6. Syntyche, 4:2

IX. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Philippi, 1:1

2. Macedonia, 4:15

3. Thessalonica, 4:16

X. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What doctrine does 1:6 emphasize?

2. Explain what Paul meant in 1:16.

3. What does the phrase “the Spirit of Jesus Christ” imply?

4. Explain 1:21 in your own words.

5. How does 2:6 relate to Jesus’ pre-existence and deity?

6. Why did Jesus die on a cross? (2:8)

7. Who does “those in heaven, on earth, and under the earth” refer to?

8. What does it mean “to work out your own salvation with fear and
trembling”? (2:12)

9. List Paul’s Jewish qualifications in 2:4-6.

10. What is the significance of 3:9?

11. Philippians 4:4 says, “the Lord is near.” If so, why has He not returned?

INTRODUCTION TO COLOSSIANS

I. OPENING STATEMENTS

A. Thank God for the heretics at Colossae; because of them Paul wrote this
powerful letter. Remember that to understand the book, we must relate it to its
historical setting. Paul’s letters are called “occasional documents” because he
was addressing local problems with the universal gospel truths. The heresy at
Colossae was an unusual mixture of Greek philosophy (gnosticism) and Judaism.

B. The cosmic Lordship of Jesus is the central theme (cf. 1:15-17). The
Christology of this book is unsurpassed! Colossians forms the basic outline for
Ephesians. Paul knew the heresy would spread in Asia minor. Colossians attacks
the false teachings while Ephesians develops its central themes to prepare other
churches for the coming heresy. The emphasis of Colossians is Christological
while the emphasis in Ephesians is the unity of all things in Christ, who is
Lord of all things.

C. Paul refutes legalism, both Jewish and Greek, in very powerful terms
(2:6-23).

II. THE CITY

A. Originally the city of Colossae was part of the kingdom of Pergamum within
Phrygia. In 133 B.C. it was given to the senate of Rome.

B. Colossae was a large commercial center before Paul’s day (cf. Heroditus’
Histories VII:30 and Xenophon
Anabasis 1:2:6).

1. The valley in which Colossae was located was the ancient Mediterranean
world’s leading producer of wool, especially black wool, and dyed wool, purple
and scarlet. The volcanic soil produced excellent pasture land and the chalky
water aided the dyeing process (Strabo, 13:4:14).

2. Volcanic activity (Strabo, 12:8:6) caused the city to be destroyed
several times in its history; the latest time being A.D. 60 (Tacitus) or A.D. 64
(Eusebius).

C. Colossae was located on the Lycus River, a tributary of the Maeander
River, which ran by Ephesus, 100 miles downstream. In this one valley were
located Hierapolis (6 miles away) and Laodicea (10 miles away) (cf. 1:2; 2:1;
4:13, 15-16).

D. After the Romans built their major east-west highway,
Via Ignatia, which bypassed Colossae, it dwindled to almost nothing
(Strabo). This was similar to what happened to Petra in the Trans-Jordan area of
Palestine.

E. The city was made up mostly of Gentiles (Phyrgians and Greek settlers),
but there were numerous Jews also. Josephus tells us that Antiochus III (223-187
B.C.) transported 2,000 Jews from Babylon to Colossae. Records show that by A.D.
76, 11,000 Jewish males lived in the district of which Colossae was the capital.

III. AUTHOR

A. There are two senders, Paul and Timothy (cf. Col. 1:1). However, the main
author is Paul; Timothy was sending his greeting as Paul’s co-worker and
possibly scribe (amanuensus).

B. The ancient literature is unanimous that Paul the Apostle was the author:

1. Marcion (who came to Rome in A.D. 140’s), the anti-Old Testament heretic,
included it in his Pauline corpus.

2. It was listed with Paul’s letters in the Muratorian Canon (a list of
canonical books from Rome around A.D. 200)

3. Several early church fathers quote from it and identify Paul as author

a. Irenaeus (wrote A.D. 177-190)

b. Clement of Alexandria (lived A.D. 160-216)

IV. THE LITERARY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COLOSSIANS AND EPHESIANS

A. The historical relationship between these two prison letters follows this
outline

1. Epaphras (Col. 1:7; 4:12;
Philemon 23) was converted during Paul’s Ephesian Campaign (Acts 19).

1. Epaphras took his new-found faith back to his home area, the Lycus River
valley (cf. 4:12).

b. Epaphras started three churches: Hierapolis, Laodicea (cf. 4:13), and
Colossae.

c. Epaphras asked Paul for advice on how to combat this merging of
Christianity, Judaism, and Greek thought, which the heretics were teaching. Paul
was imprisoned (cf. 4:3,18) at Rome (early 60’s).

2. False teachers advocated Greek metaphysics

a. Spirit and matter were co-eternal

b. Spirit (God) was good

c. Matter (creation) was evil

d. A series of eons (angelic levels) existed between a good high God
and a lesser god who formed matter

e. Salvation was based on knowledge of secret passwords which helped people
progress through the angelic levels (eons) to the high good God

B. The literary relationship between Paul’s two letters

1. Paul heard of the heresy in these churches which he had never personally
visited (cf. 1:7-8).

2. Paul wrote a hard-hitting letter in short, emotional sentences, directed
at the false teachers. The central theme was the cosmic lordship of Jesus. This
is known as Paul’s letter to the Colossians.

3. Apparently, soon after writing Colossians, with time on his hands in
prison, he developed the themes in the letter we know as Ephesians. He knew that
this attempt to merge Greek thought and the gospel for the purpose of making
Christianity “relevant” to Greek culture would spread to all the new churches in
Asia Minor. Ephesians is characterized by long sentences and developed
theological concepts (1:3-14, 15-23; 2:1-10, 14-18, 19-22; 3:1-12, 14-19;
4:11-16; 6:13-20). It takes Colossians as a starting point and draws out its
theological implications. Its central theme is the unity of all things in
Christ, which is a contrast to the eons (angelic levels) of incipient
gnosticism.

C. Related literary and theological structure

1. The basic structure

a. They have very similar openings

b. They each have a doctrinal section dealing primarily with Christ

c. Each has a practical section which emphasizes Christian lifestyle using
the same categories, terms, and phrases

d. They have virtually identical closing verses. In Greek they share 29
consecutive words; Colossians adds only two additional words (“and fellow bond
slave”). Compare Eph. 6:21-22 with Col. 4:7-9.

2. Exact words or short phrases

Eph. 1:1c and Col. 1:2a “faithful”

Eph.1:4 and Col. 1:22 “holy and blameless”

Eph. 1:7 and Col. 1:14 “redemption. . .forgiveness”

Eph. 1:10 and Col. 1:20 “all things. . .heaven. . .earth”

Eph. 1:15 and Col. 1:3-4 “heard. . .love for all the saints”

Eph. 1:18 and Col. 1:27 “the riches of the glory”

Eph. 1:27 and Col. 1:18 “head. . .church”

Eph. 2:1 and Col. 1:13 “you were dead”

Eph. 2:16 and Col. 1:20 “reconcile. . .cross”

Eph. 3:2 and Col. 1:25 “stewardship”

Eph. 3:3 and Col. 1:26,27 “mystery”

Eph. 4:3 and Col. 3:14 “unity”

Eph. 4:15 and Col. 2:19 “head” and “grow”

Eph. 4:24 and Col. 3:10, 12, 14 “put on . . .”

Eph. 4:31 and Col. 3:8 “anger” “wrath” “malice” “slander”

Eph. 5:3 and Col. 3:5 “immorality” “impurity” “greed”

Eph. 5:5 and Col.3:5 “idolatry” (coveting)

Eph. 5:6 and Col. 3:6 “the wrath of God”

Eph. 5:16 and Col. 4:5 “making the most of the time”

3. Exact phrases or sentences

Eph. 1:1a and Col 1:1a

Eph. 1:1b and Col. 1:2a

Eph. 1:2a and Col. 1:2b

Eph. 1:13 and Col. 1:5

Eph. 2:1 and Col. 2:13

Eph. 2:5b and Col. 2:13c

Eph. 4:1b and Col. 1:10a

Eph. 6:21,22 and Col. 4:7-9 (29 consecutive words except for “kai syndoulos”
in Colossians)

4. Similar phrases or sentences

Eph. 1:21 and Col. 1:16

Eph. 2:1 and Col. 1:13

Eph. 2:16 and Col. 1:20

Eph. 3:7a and Col. 1:23d, 25a

Eph. 3:8 and Col. 1:27

Eph. 4:2 and Col. 3:12

Eph. 4:29 and Col. 3:8; 4:6

Eph. 5:15 and Col. 4:5

Eph. 5:19,20 and Col. 3:16

5. Theologically synonymous concepts

Eph. 1:3 and Col. 1:3 a prayer of thanks

Eph. 2:1,12 and Col. 1:21 alienation from God

Eph. 2:15 and Col. 2:14 hostility of Law

Eph. 4:1 and Col 1:10 worthy walk

Eph. 4:15 and Col. 2:19 Christ’s body growing to maturity from its Head

Eph. 4:19 and Col. 3:5 sexual impurity

Eph.4:22,31 and Col. 3:8 “lay aside” sins

Eph.4:32 and Col. 3:12-13 Christians kind to one another

Eph. 5:4 and Col. 3:8 Christian speech

Eph. 5:18 and Col. 3:16 filling of Spirit=word of Christ

Eph. 5:20 and Col. 3:17 thanksgiving to God for all things

Eph. 5:22 and Col. 3:18 wives be subject to husbands

Eph. 5:25 and Col. 3:19 husbands love your wives

Eph. 6:1 and Col. 3:20 children obey your parents

Eph. 6:4 and Col. 3:21 fathers do not provoke children

Eph. 6:5 and Col. 3:22 slaves obey masters

Eph. 6:9 and Col. 4:1 masters and slaves

Eph. 6:18 and Col. 4:2-4 Paul’s request for prayer

6. Terms and phrases used in both Colossians and Ephesians which are not
found in other Pauline literature

a. “fullness” (which was the gnostic term for the angelic levels)

Eph. 1:23 “the fullness of Him who fills all in all”

Eph. 3:19 “be filled up to all the fullness of God”

Eph. 4:13 “to the fullness of Christ”

Col. 1:19 “for all the fullness to dwell in Him”

Col. 2:9 “for in Him all the fullness of Deity dwells”

b. Christ as “Head” of the church

Eph. 4:15; 5:23 and Col. 1:18; 2:19

c. “alienated”

Eph. 2:12; 4:18 and Col. 1:21

d. “redeeming the time”

Eph. 5:16 and Col. 4:5

e. “rooted”

Eph. 3:17 and Col. 1:5

f. “the word of truth, the gospel”

Eph. 1:13 and Col. 1:5

g. “forbearing”

Eph. 4:2 and Col. 3:13

h. unusual phrasing and terms (“held together,” “supply”)

Eph. 4:16 and Col. 2:19

D. Summary

1. Over one third of the words in Colossians are also in Ephesians. It has
been estimated that 75 of the 155 verses in Ephesians have a parallel in
Colossians. Both claim Paul’s authorship while in prison.

2. Both were delivered by Paul’s friend Tychicus.

3. Both were sent to the same area (Asia Minor).

4. Both deal with the same Christological topic.

5. Both emphasize Christ as Head of the church.

6. Both encourage Christian living.

E. Major Points of Dissimilarity

1. The church is always local in Colossians but universal in Ephesians. This
may be because of the circular nature of the letter of Ephesians.

2. Heresy, which is such a prominent feature of Colossians, is totally
absent in Ephesians. However, both letters use characteristic gnostic terms
(“wisdom,” “knowledge,” “fullness,” “mystery,” “principalities and powers” and
“stewardship.”)

3. The Second Coming is immediate in Colossians but delayed in Ephesians.
The church was, and is, called to serve in a fallen world. (2:7; 3:21; 4:13).

4. Several characteristically Pauline terms are used differently. One
example is the term “mystery.” In Colossians the mystery is Christ (Col.
1:26-27; 2:2; 4:3), but in Ephesians (1:9; 5:32) it is God’s previously hidden,
but now revealed, plan for the unity of Gentiles and Jews.

5. Ephesians has several Old Testament allusions (1:22—Ps. 8; 2:17—Isa.
57:19) (2:20—Ps. 118:22) (4:8—Ps. 68:18) (4:26—Ps. 4:4) (5:15—Isa. 26:19, 51:17,
52:1, 60:1) (5:3—Gen. 3:24) (6:2—Exod. 20:12) (6:14—Isa. 11:5, 59:17) (6:15—Isa.
52:7) but there are only one or two in Colossians (2:3—Isa. 11:2) or (2:22—Isa.
29:13).

F. Though very similar in words, phrases, and often outline, the letters also
include unique concepts:

1. The Trinitarian blessing of grace, Eph. 1:3-14

2. The grace passage, Eph. 2:1-10

3. The merging of Jews and Gentiles into one new body, Eph. 2:11-3:13

4. The unity and giftedness of the body of Christ, Eph. 4:1-16

5. “Christ and the church” as the pattern for “husband and wife,” Eph.
5:22-33

6. The spiritual warfare passage, Eph. 6:10-18

7. The Christological passage, Col. 1:13-18

8. Human religious rituals and rules, Col. 2:16-23

9. The theme of the cosmic significance in Christ of Colossians versus the
theme of the unity of all things in Christ in Ephesians.

G. In conclusion, it seems best to follow A. T. Robertson and F. F. Bruce in
asserting that Paul wrote both letters in close proximity and developed the
thoughts of Colossians into his capstone presentation of truth, Ephesians.

V. DATE

A. The date of Colossians is linked to one of Paul’s imprisonments (Ephesus,
Philippi, Caesarea, or Rome). A Roman imprisonment best fits the facts of Acts.

B. Once Rome is assumed to be the place of imprisonment, the question
arises—which time? Acts records that Paul was imprisoned in the early 60’s.
However, he was released and wrote the Pastoral letters (I & II Timothy and
Titus) and was then rearrested and killed before June 9, A.D. 68 (the date of
Nero’s suicide), probably in A.D. 67.

C. The best educated guess for the writing of Colossians (Ephesians and
Philemon) is Paul’s first imprisonment, in the early 60’s. (Philippians was the
last of the prison letters, probably written toward the mid 60’s.)

D. Tychicus, along with Onesimus, probably took the letters of Colossians,
Ephesians, and Philemon to Asia Minor. Later, possibly several years later,
Epaphroditus, recovered from his physical illness, took the letter of
Philippians back to his home church.

E. Possible chronology of Paul’s writings following F. F. Bruce and Murry
Harris with minor adaptations.

Book Date Place of Writing Relation
to Acts

1. Galatians 48 Syrian Antioch 14:28; 15:2

2. I Thessalonians 50 Corinth 18:5

3. II Thessalonians 50 Corinth

4. I Corinthians 55 Ephesus 19:20

5. II Corinthians 56 Macedonia 20:2

6. Romans 57 Corinth 20:3

7.-10. Prison Letters

Colossians early 60’s Rome

Ephesians early 60’s Rome

Philemon early 60’s Rome

Philippians late 62-63 Rome 28:30-31

11.-13. Fourth Missionary Journey

I Timothy 63 (or later, Macedonia

Titus 63 but before Ephesus (?)

II Timothy 64 A.D. 68) Rome

VI. RECIPIENTS AND OCCASION

A. The church was apparently started by Epaphras (cf. 1:7,8; 2:1; 4:12-13),
who was probably converted by Paul at Ephesus (cf. Col. 1:7-8 and compare 2:1).
It was mostly made up of Gentiles (cf. 1:21; 3:7). Epaphras came to Paul in
prison to report a problem with false teachers who taught a mixture of
Christianity with Greek philosophy called gnosticism (2:8) and Jewish legalism
(cf. Jewish elements, 2:11, 16, 17: 3:11; angel worship, 1:16; 2:15, 18 and
asceticism 2:20-23). There was a very large Jewish community in Colossae which
had become very Hellenistic. The essence of the problem centered around the
person and work of Christ. The gnostics denied that Jesus was fully man but
affirmed that He was fully divine because of their eternal antagonistic dualism
between matter and spirit. They would affirm His Deity but deny His humanity.
They also denied His mediatorial preeminence. For them there were many angelic
levels (eons) between a good high god and humanity; Jesus, even though
the highest, was only one of the gods. They also tended to be intellectually
exclusive (cf. 3:11, 14, 16, 17) and emphasized a special exclusive secret
knowledge (cf. 2:15, 18, 19) as the path to God instead of Jesus’ atoning,
vicarious sacrifice and mankind’s repentant faith response to His free offer of
forgiveness.

B. Because of this theological, philosophical atmosphere, the book of
Colossians emphasizes

1. The uniqueness of the person of Christ and His finished work of salvation.

2. The cosmological ownership, reign and significance of Jesus of Nazareth –
His birth, His teachings, His life, His death, His resurrection and His
ascension! He is Lord of all!

VII. PURPOSE

Paul’s purpose was to refute the Colossian heresy. To accomplish this goal,
he exalted Christ as the very image of God (1:15), the Creator (1:16), the
preexistent sustainer of all things (1:17), the head of the church (1:18), the
first to be resurrected (1:18), the fullness of deity in bodily form (1:19, 2:9)
and the reconciler (1:20-22). Thus, Christ was completely adequate. Believers
“have been given fullness in Christ” (2:10). The Colossian heresy was completely
theologically inadequate to provide spiritual salvation. It was a hollow and
deceptive philosophy (2:8), lacking any ability to restrain the old sinful
nature (2:23).

A recurring theme in Colossians is the complete adequacy of Christ as
contrasted with the emptiness of mere human philosophy. This adequacy is
expressed in the cosmic Lordship of Jesus. He is owner, creator and sovereign
over all things, visible and invisible (cf. 1:15-18).

VIII. OUTLINE

A. Traditional Pauline openings

1. Identification with sender, 1:1

2. Identification with recipients, 1:2a

3. Greetings, 1:2b

B. The Supremacy of Christ (topics 1-10 taken from NKJV paragraph outline)

1. Faith in Christ, 1:3-8

2. The Preeminence of Christ, 1:9-18

3. Reconciliation in Christ, 1:19-23

4. Sacrificial service for Christ, 1:24-29

5. Not philosophy, but Christ, 2:1-10

6. Not legalism, but Christ, 2:11-23

7. Not carnality, but Christ, 3:1-11

8. Put on Christ, 3:12-17

9. Let Christ affect your home, 3:19-4:1

10. Let Christ affect your daily life, 4:2-6

C. Paul’s messengers, 4:7-9

D. Paul’s friends send their greetings, 4:10-14

E. Paul sends greetings, 4:15-17

F. Paul’s closing in his own hand, 4:18

IX. GNOSTICISM

A. Most of our knowledge of this heresy comes from the gnostic writings of
the second century. However, the incipient ideas were present in the first
century (Dead Sea Scrolls).

B. The problem at Colossae was a hybrid of Christianity, incipient
gnosticism, and legalistic Judaism.

C. Some stated tenets of Valentinian and Cerinthian Gnosticism of the second
century

1. Matter and spirit were co-eternal (an ontological dualism). Matter is
evil, spirit is good. God, who is spirit, cannot be directly involved with
molding evil matter.

2. There are emanations (eons or angelic levels) between God and
matter. The last or lowest one was YHWH of the Old Testament who formed the
universe (kosmos).

3. Jesus was an emanation like YHWH but higher on the scale, closer to the
true God. Some put Him as the highest but still less than God and certainly not
incarnate deity, (cf. John 1:14). Since matter is evil, Jesus could not have a
human body and still be divine. He just appeared human, but was really a spirit
(cf. I John 1:1-3; 4:1-6).

4. Salvation was obtained through faith in Jesus plus special knowledge,
which is only known by special persons. Knowledge (passwords) was needed to pass
through heavenly spheres. Jewish legalism was also required to reach God.

D. The gnostic false teachers advocated two opposite ethical systems:

1. For some, lifestyle was totally unrelated to salvation. For them,
salvation and spirituality were encapsulated into secret knowledge (passwords)
through the angelic spheres (eons).

2. For others, lifestyle was crucial to salvation. In this book, the false
teachers emphasized an ascetic lifestyle as an evidence of true spirituality
(cf. 2:16-23).

E. A good reference book is The Gnostic Religion by Hans Jonas,
published by Beacon Press.

X. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “the hope laid up for you in heaven,” 1:5

2. the gospel, 1:5

3. “the domain of darkness,” 1:13

4. redemption, 1:14

5. “the invisible God,” 1:15

6. “all the fullness to dwell in Him,” 1:19

7. “having made peace through the blood of His cross,” 1:20

8. “in filling up what is lacking in Christ’s affliction,” 1:24

9. “the tradition of men,” 2:8

10. “the elementary principles of the world,” 2:8,20

11. “buried with Him in baptism,” 2:12

12. “you were dead in your transgressions,” 2:13

13. “cancelled out the certificate of debt,” 2:14

14. “your life is hidden with Christ in God,” 3:3

15. barbarian, 3:11

16. “my letter that is coming from Laodicea,” 4:16

XI. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. Epaphras, 1:7; 4:12

2. “the first born of all creation,” 1:15

3. “thrones or dominions or rulers or authorities,” 1:16

4. the firstborn of the dead, 1:18

5. Scythian, 3:11

6. Tychicus, 4:7

7. Onesimus, 4:9

8. Mark, 4:10

9. Luke, 4:14

10. Demas, 4:14

XII. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Colossae, 1:2

2. Laodicea, 2:1

3. Hierapolis, 4:13

XIII. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Why does Paul talk so much about knowledge and wisdom? (1:9)

2. What does the warning of 1:23 imply?

3. What is the mystery of God hidden from the past ages? (1:27)

4. Did Paul not know the people of this church? (2:1)

5. How could someone take them captive through philosophy? (2:8)

6. What doctrine does 2:9 emphasize?

7. Explain the Roman historical background of 2:15.

8. To whom is 2:16-17 referring?

9. How does 2:14-23 address legalism?

10. Why do the sins of 3:5 equal idolatry?

11. How does Col. 3:11 relate to Gal. 3:28?

12. How is 3:16 related to Eph. 5:18?

13. What is the spiritual principle of 3:23?

14. Explain in your own words the proverb of 4:6.

15. Why did Paul write the closing of all his letters? (4:18)

Introduction to the Thessalonian Letters

I. OPENING STATEMENT

A. Brief Summary

1. The Thessalonian letters provide tremendous insight into Paul as both
missionary and pastor. We find him establishing a church in a brief time and
continuing to pray and be concerned about its growth, development, and ministry.

2. We see him faithfully proclaiming the gospel, concerned for the converts,
scolding them, praising them, guiding them, exhorting them, teaching them,
loving them, even giving of himself to them. He was thrilled with their progress
to that point, but was disappointed with the rate at which they matured.

3. In these Epistles we meet a zealous, loving servant of Christ and a small,
zealous, but growing new church. Both were faithful, both were used by God, and
both served each other in a Christlike manner seldom found among God’s people.

B. The City of Thessalonica

1. Brief History of Thessalonica

a. Thessalonica was located at the head of the Thermaic Gulf. Thessalonica
was a coastal town on the major Roman road, Via Ignatia (the way of the
nations), running eastward from Rome. A seaport, it was also very close to a
rich, well-watered, coastal plain. These three advantages made Thessalonica the
largest, most important commercial and political center in Macedonia.

b. Thessalonica was originally named Therma, derived from the hot springs
located in the area. An early historian, Pliny the Elder, refers to Therma and
Thessalonica existing together. If this is the case, Thessalonica simply
surrounded Therma and annexed it (Leon Morris, The First and Second Epistles
to the Thessalonians, Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company,
1991, p. 11). Yet most historians believe Cassander, one of Alexander the
Great’s generals, renamed Therma in 315 B.C. after Philip of Macedonia’s
daughter and Alexander’s half-sister and his wife, Thessalonica (Strabo VII
Fragment 21). Sometime during the early centuries of the spread of Christianity,
Thessalonica came to be nicknamed “the orthodox city” because of its Christian
character (Dean Farrar, The Life and Work of St. Paul, New York: Cassell
and Company, Limited, 1904, p. 364). Today Thessalonica is known as Salonika and
it still is an important city in Greece.

c. Thessalonica was a cosmopolitan metropolis similar to Corinth, inhabited
by peoples from all over the known world.

(1) Barbaric Germanic peoples from the north were living there, bringing with
them their pagan religion and culture.

(2) Greeks lived there, coming from Achaia to the south and from the islands
of the Aegean Sea, in turn bringing their refinement and philosophy.

(3) Romans from the west also settled there. They were mostly retired
soldiers and they brought their strength of will, wealth and political power.

(4) Finally, Jews came in large numbers from the east; eventually one third
of the population was Jewish. They brought with them their ethical monotheistic
faith and their national prejudices.

d. Thessalonica, with a population of about 200,000, was truly a cosmopolitan
city. It was a resort and health center because of the hot springs. It was a
commercial center because of its seaport, fertile plains and the proximity of
the Ignatian Way.

e. As the capital and largest city, Thessalonica was also the central
political headquarters of Macedonia. Being a Roman provincial capital and home
of many Roman citizens (mostly retired soldiers), it became a free city.
Thessalonica paid no tribute and was governed by Roman law, since most
Thessalonians were Roman citizens. Thus the Thessalonian rulers were called
“politarchs.” This title appears nowhere else in literature but it is preserved
by an inscription over the triumphal arch at Thessalonica known as the Vardar
Gate (Farrar, p. 371n.).

2. Events Leading to Paul’s Coming to Thessalonica

a. Many events led Paul to Thessalonica, yet behind all the physical
circumstances is the direct, definite call of God. Paul had not originally
planned to enter the European continent. But his desire on this second
missionary journey was to revisit the churches in Asia Minor that he had
established on his first journey and then to turn eastward. Yet, just as the
moment arrived to turn northeastward, God started closing the doors. The
culmination of this was Paul’s Macedonian vision (cf. Acts 16:6-10). This caused
two things to happen: first, the continent of Europe was evangelized and second,
Paul, because of circumstances in Macedonia, began writing his Epistles (Thomas
Carter, Life and Letters of Paul, Nashville: Cokesbury Press, 1921, p.
112).

b. After noting the above spiritual direction, the physical circumstances
that led Paul to Thessalonica were:

(1) Paul went to Philippi, a small town with no synagogue. His work there was
thwarted by the owners of a prophetic, demonic slave girl and the town council.
Paul was beaten and humiliated yet a church was formed even in the midst of all
this. Because of the opposition and physical punishment, Paul was forced to
leave, possibly sooner than he had wished.

(2) Where would he go from there? He passed through Amphipolis and Apollonia
that also had no synagogue,

(3) He came to the largest city in the area, Thessalonica, which did have a
synagogue. Paul had made it a pattern to go to the local Jews first. He did this
because:

(a) of their knowledge of the Old Testament;

(b) of the opportunity for teaching and preaching that the synagogue
presented;

(c) of their position as the chosen people, God’s covenant people (cf. Matt.
10:6; 15:24; Rom. 1:16-17; 9-11);

(d) Jesus had offered Himself first to them, then to the world—so too, Paul
would follow Christ’s example.

3. Paul’s Companions

a. Paul was accompanied by Silas and Timothy in Thessalonica. Luke was with
Paul at Philippi and he remained there. We learn this by the “we” and “they”
passages of Acts 16 and 17. Luke speaks of “we” at Philippi, but of “they” as
traveling to Thessalonica.

b. Silas, or Silvanus, was the man Paul picked to go with him on the second
missionary journey after Barnabas and John Mark went back to Cyprus:

(1) He is first mentioned in the Bible in Acts 15:22 where he is called a
chief man among the brethren of the Jerusalem Church.

(2) He was also a prophet (cf. Acts 15:32).

(3) He was a Roman citizen like Paul (cf. Acts 16:37).

(4) He and Judas Barsabbas were sent to Antioch by the Jerusalem Church to
inspect the situation (cf. Acts 15:22,30-35).

(5) Paul praises him in II Cor. 1:19 and mentions him in several letters.

(6) Later he is identified with Peter in writing I Peter (cf. I Pet. 5:12).

(7) Both Paul and Peter call him Silvanus while Luke calls him Silas.

c. Timothy was also a companion and fellow-worker of Paul:

(1) Paul met him at Lystra where he was converted on the first missionary
journey.

(2) Timothy was half Greek (father) and half Jewish (mother). Paul wanted to
use him to work with evangelizing the Gentiles.

(3) Paul circumcised him so that he could work with Jewish people.

(4) Timothy is mentioned in the salutation in: II Corinthians, Colossians, I
and II Thessalonians and Philemon.

(5) Paul spoke of him as “my son in the ministry” (cf. I Tim. 1:2; II Tim.
1:2; Tit. 1:4). Paul’s general tone throughout his letters implies Timothy was
younger and timid.

(6)Paul has great confidence and trust in him (cf. Acts 19:27; I Cor. 4:17;
Phil. 2:19).

d. It is only fitting in the section on Paul’s companions that mention is
made of the men who came to Thessalonica and accompanied Paul on his later
missions. They are Aristarchus (Acts 19:29; 20:4; 27:2) and Secundus (Acts
20:4). Also, Demas could have been from Thessalonica (Philem. 24; II Tim. 4:10).

4. Paul’s Ministry in the City

a. Paul’s ministry in Thessalonica followed his usual pattern of going to the
Jews first and then turning to the Gentiles. Paul preached on three Sabbaths in
the synagogue. His message was “Jesus is the Messiah.” He used Old Testament
Scriptures to show that the Messiah was to be a suffering Messiah (cf. Gen.
3:15; Isa. 53), and not a political temporal Messiah. Paul also emphasized the
resurrection and offered salvation to all. Jesus was clearly presented as the
Messiah promised of old that could save all peoples.

b. The response to this message was that some Jews, many devout Gentiles, and
many important women accepted Jesus as Savior and Lord. An analysis of these
groups of converts is very meaningful in understanding Paul’s later letters to
this church.

c. Gentiles comprised most of the members of the church, seen by the absence
of allusions to the OT in either of the two epistles. The Gentiles readily
accepted Jesus as Savior and Lord for several reasons:

(1) Their traditional religions were powerless superstition. Thessalonica lay
at the foot of Mt. Olympus and all knew its heights were empty.

(2) The gospel was free to all.

(3) Christianity contained no Jewish exclusive nationalism. The Jewish
religion had attracted many because of its monotheism and its high morals, but
it also repelled many because of its repugnant ceremonies (such as
circumcision), and

its inherent racial and national prejudices.

d. Many “chief women” accepted Christianity, because of these women’s
abilities to make their own religious choices. Women were more free in Macedonia
and Asia Minor than in the rest of the Greco-Roman world (Sir Wm. M. Ramsay,
St. Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen, New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons,
1896, p. 227). Yet the poorer class of women, although free, were still under
the sway of superstition and polytheism (Ramsay, p. 229).

e. Many have found a problem in the length of time that Paul stayed at
Thessalonica:

(1) Acts 17:2 speaks of Paul’s reasoning in the synagogue on three Sabbaths
while in Thessalonica.

(2) I Thess. 2:7-11 tells of Paul’s working at his trade. This was
tent-making or as some have suggested working with leather.

(3) Phil. 4:16 supports the longer residence, when Paul received at least two
money gifts from the church at Philippi while in Thessalonica. The distance
between the two cities is about 100 miles. Some suggest that Paul stayed about
two or three months and that the three Sabbaths only refer to the ministry to
the Jews (Shepard, p. 165).

(4) The differing accounts of the converts in Acts 17:4 and I Thess. 1:9 and
2:4 support this view, the key difference in the accounts being the rejection of
idols by the Gentiles. The Gentiles in Acts were Jewish proselytes and had
already turned from idols. The context implies Paul may have had a larger
ministry among pagan Gentiles than Jews.

(5) When a larger ministry might have occurred is uncertain because Paul
always went to the Jews first. After they rejected his message, he turned to the
Gentiles. When they responded to the gospel in large numbers, the Jews became
jealous (which was one of Paul’s missionary techniques, cf. Rom. 9-11) and
started a riot among the rabble of the city.

f. Because of a riot Paul left Jason’s house and hid with Timothy and Silas
or at least they were not present when the mob stormed Jason’s house looking for
them. The Politarchs made Jason put up a security bond to insure peace. This
caused Paul to leave the city by night and go to Berea. Nevertheless, the church
continued its witness of Christ in the face of much opposition.

II. AUTHOR

A. I Thessalonians. Only
modern form critics have seriously doubted the Paul’s authorship and the
authenticity of I Thess., but their conclusions have not convinced many
scholars. I Thess. is included in Marcion’s canon (A.D. 140) and in the
Muratorian Fragment (A.D. 200). Both lists of canonical books of the NT
circulated in Rome. Irenaeus quoted I Thess. by name—he wrote around A.D. 180.

B. II Thessalonians.

1. The book of II Thess. has not always been accepted as Pauline and has been
attacked on several grounds:

a. The vocabulary poses one problem. The letter contains many words not found
in the other Pauline letters.

b. “The style is stereotyped and at times curiously formal” (Heard, p. 186).

c. The eschatology of the two letters is supposedly inconsistent.

d. II Thess. contains a view of the anti-Christ unique in the NT, therefore,
some conclude that Paul could not be the author.

2. The authenticity of II Thess. is based on several premises:

a. Polycarp, Ignatius, and Justin recognized it;

b. The Marcionite canon included it;

c. The Muratorian Fragment included it;

d. Irenaeus quoted it by name;

e. The vocabulary, style and theology are as Pauline as I Thessalonians

C. The Two Compared

1. The two letters are very similar, not only in ideas, but also in actual
phraseology. If the opening and closing formula language are excluded,
resemblances still occur in about one-third of the material.

2. The general tone of II Thessalonians is different from the first letter,
being colder and more formal. Yet this can easily be understood when one sees
the emotional circumstances involved in the writing of the first letter and the
developed problems of the second letter.

D. The Order of the Letters

1. Another interesting hypothesis is presented by F. W. Manson using Johannes
Weiss’ notes. They contend that the order of the books is reversed. The reasons
for this are:

a. the trials and tribulations are at their height in II Thess., but are past
in I Thess.;

b. in II Thessalonains the internal difficulties are spoken of as a new
development of which the author of the letter has just learned, whereas in I
Thess. the circumstances were familiar to all concerned;

c. the statement that the Thessalonians have no need to be instructed about
times and seasons (I Thess. 5:1) is very relevant if they are acquainted with II
Thess. 2;

d. the formula “Now concerning. . .” in I Thess. 4:9, 13; 5:1, is like that
in I Cor. 7:1,25; 8:1; 12:1; 16:1,12, where the writer is replying to points
raised in a letter sent to him. Manson thinks that the replies might concern
certain questions arising from statements in II Thess.

2. Several premises may counteract this argument:

a. the problems occupying Paul’s attention intensify and deepen from I Thess.
to II Thess.;

b. the passages in II Thess. refer to a letter from Paul (2:2, 15; 3:17) and
if we assume this letter not to be I Thess., then we have the problem of a lost
letter;

c. the personal reminiscences forming so prominent a part of the first letter
are lacking in the second, which seems natural if the letter is a sequel to the
first;

d. the tone of the letters seems completely unnatural to this situation if
the order is reversed.

III. DATE OF LETTERS

A. The date for the writing of the Thessalonian Letters is one of the most
certain dates we have involving Paul’s letters. It is recorded that while Paul
was in “Corinth he was arrested and brought before Gallio, the proconsul of
Achaia.” An inscription discovered at Delphi answers a question referred to the
Emperor Claudius by this same Gallio. It was dated in the twelfth year of the
Emperor’s tribunal power and after his twenty-sixth acclamation as Emperor. This
twelfth year was from 25 January A.D. 52 through 24 January A.D. 53. While the
date of the twenty-sixth acclamation is not exactly known, the twenty-seventh
was before 1 August A.D. 52. Claudius’ decision would have been given to Gallio
during the first half of 52. Now proconsuls usually took office in early summer
and held office for one year. It would seem, therefore, Gallio entered his term
of office in the early summer of 51″ (Morris, p. 15).

B. This dating of the term of office of the proconsul does not completely
solve all the problems of the dating of the Thessalonian Letters. Paul was in
Corinth for 18 months (Acts 18:11) but at which time he appeared before Gallio
is not known. Most commentators date I and II Thessalonians in 50-51 A.D.

C. Possible chronology of Paul’s writings following F. F. Bruce and Murry
Harris with minor adaptations.

Book Date Place of Writing Relation
to Acts

1. Galatians 48 Syrian Antioch 14:28; 15:2

2. I Thessalonians 50 Corinth 18:5

3. II Thessalonians 50 Corinth

4. I Corinthians 55 Ephesus 19:20

5. II Corinthians 56 Macedonia 20:2

6. Romans 57 Corinth 20:3

7.-10. Prison Letters

Colossians early 60’s Rome

Ephesians early 60’s Rome

Philemon early 60’s Rome

Philippians late 62-63 Rome 28:30-31

11.-13. Fourth Missionary Journey

I Timothy 63 (or later, Macedonia

Titus 63 but before Ephesus (?)

II Timothy 64 A.D. 68) Rome

IV. EVENTS SURROUNDING THE THESSALONIAN LETTERS

A. The events that led to Paul’s writing of the Thessalonian letters are
complex and intertwined. Certain distinctions must be noted, especially
concerning the physical setting and the emotional setting. Paul was forced to
leave the new Thessalonian believers because the Jews had incited the
superstitious, polytheistic rabble of the city to riot at Jason’s house in a
search for Paul and his companions. After a hearing before the Politarchs, Jason
and other Christian leaders were forced to put up a security bond to assure
peace. When Paul heard of this he knew he had to move on and leave this young,
immature church. He, therefore, went to Berea with Timothy and Silas. Timothy
apparently stayed at first (cf. Acts 17:10) then later joined Silas to go to
Athens (cf. Acts 17:15). At first the honest reception of the Jews at Berea was
a blessing to Paul in the face of such strong Jewish opposition previously. Yet
this did not last long. The Jews from Thessalonica came down to Berea and
started causing trouble. Therefore, Paul had to leave again.

B. This time Paul went to Athens where he received a cold and unresponsive
welcome. He became a novelty to the academic philosophers. His experience in
Macedonia was characterized by persecution and opposition. He was beaten,
stripped naked, and chased out of town by night. Scholars mocked him, and pagans
and many of his own countrymen hated him (cf. II Cor. 4:7-11; 6:4-10; 11:23-29).

C. Paul had been forced to leave this promising church at Thessalonica at a
crucial time. They were immature in the faith and were facing affliction and
persecution. Paul could stand the mental anguish no longer. Worried about the
young converts, somewhere between Berea and Athens, Paul sent Timothy and Silas
back to the new Macedonian churches. Timothy went to Thessalonica. Many feel he
stayed and ministered there for six months to a year. The church desperately
needed someone to teach them, comfort them and encourage them. Timothy himself
was a fairly new convert. He was converted on Paul’s first missionary journey,
but he had only been with Paul since Paul went to Lystra on his second
missionary journey. He was, therefore, new in the ministry but Paul had great
confidence in him. This was Timothy’s first assignment as Paul’s official
representative.

D. Paul ministered in Athens alone and he became very discouraged and
depressed because of the lack of response to the gospel in Macedonia and his
incessant concern for the new Christians there. He was concerned about the
Thessalonian church in particular. Could a church be founded in such a short
time and in difficult circumstances and still endure? (Carter, p. 115) To add to
this he had received no word from Timothy and Silas for some time (six months to
a year, although some say only one or two months) (Farrar, p. 369). This was the
emotional state in which we found Paul as he arrived in Corinth.

E. In Corinth two things happened that greatly encouraged Paul.

1. The vision that God had many in Corinth who would respond to the gospel
(Acts 18:9-10).

2. Timothy and Silas arrived and brought good news (Acts 18:5). It was
Timothy’s message from Thessalonica that would lead Paul to write to them from
Corinth. Paul was responding to questions from the church on doctrinal and
practical issues.

F. The writing of II Thess. was not long after I Thess. because it did not
achieve all that Paul had hoped it would. Also, he had become aware of other
problems. Many scholars believe II Thess. was written about six months after I
Thess.

V. PURPOSE OF THE LETTERS

A. The Thessalonian Letters have a threefold purpose:

1. to share Paul’s joy and thanksgiving to God for the faithfulness and
Christlikeness of the Thessalonians, even amidst persecution.

2. to answer the criticism of his motives and character which had been
brought against him.

3. to discuss the return of the Lord. This eschatological element of Paul’s
preaching caused two questions in the minds of the Thessalonian Christians:

a. What would happen to believers who had died before the Lord’s return?

b. What would happen to the believers in the congregation who had stopped
working and were sitting around waiting for the Lord’s return (Barclay, pp.
21-22).

B. Much of the above can be explained by the fact that this was a young and
very zealous church. Yet because of the circumstances, they were imperfectly
trained and disciplined. These problems represent what would be expected of a
church of this nature: the new believers, the weak, the fainthearted, the idle,
the visionary, and the puzzled.

C. The occasion for II Thessalonians was, “It is simply a second prescription
for the same case, made after discovering that certain stubborn symptoms had not
yielded to the first treatment” (Walker, p. 2968).

VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES CITED

Barclay, William. The Letters and the Revelation. The New Testament. 2
vol. New York: Collins, 1969.

Carter, Thomas. Life and Letters of Paul. Nashville: Cokesbury Press,
1921.

Farrar, Dean. The Life and Work of St. Paul. New York: Cassell and
Company, Limited, 1904.

Heard, Richard. An Introduction to the New Testament.
New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1950.

Metzger, Bruce Manning. The New Testament: Its Background, Growth and
Content. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1965.

Manson, T. W. Studies in the Gospels and Epistles. Philadelphia:
Westminster, 1962.

Morris, Leon. The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991.

Ramsay, W. M. St. Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen. New York: G.
P. Putnam’s Sons, 1896.

Shepard, J. W. The Life and Letters of Paul. Grand Rapids: Wm. B.
Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1950.

Walker, R. H. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Vol. V.
N. D.

VII. CONTENT OUTLINE *

A. Greeting, 1:1

B. Prayer of Thanksgiving, 1:2-4

C. Reminiscences, 1:5-2:16

1. Response of the Thessalonians to the original preaching, 1:5-10

2. The preaching of the Gospel at Thessalonica, 2:1-16

a. The purity of the team’s motives, 2:1-6a

b. The team’s refusal to accept maintenance, 2:6b-9

c. The team’s behavior had been impeccable, 2:10-12

d. The team’s message of the Word of God, 2:13

e. Persecution, 2:14-16

D. The Relationship of Paul to the Thessalonians, 2:17-3:13

1. His desire to return, 2:17,18

2. Paul’s joy in the Thessalonians, 2:19, 20

3. Timothy’s mission, 3:1-5

4. Timothy’s report, 3:6-8

5. Paul’s satisfaction, 3:9, 10

6. Paul’s prayer, 3:11-13

E. Exhortation to Christian Living, 4:1-12

1. General, 4:1, 2

2. Sexual purity, 4:3-8

3. Brotherly love, 4:9, 10

4. Earning one’s living, 4:11, 12

F. Problems Associated with the Second Coming, 4:13-5:11

1. Believers who died before the Parousia, 4:13-18

2. The time of the Parousia, 5:1-3

3. Children of the day, 5:4-11

G. General Exhortations, 5:12-22

H. Conclusion, 5:23-28

* This book does not outline as
neatly into a doctrinal section and a practical section as most of Paul’s other
letters. If the general pattern is followed Paul’s discussion of the Second
Coming in 4:17-18 is the practical section, not the doctrinal! The Second Coming
is not a doctrine to be affirmed only, but a life to live in anticipation of His
any-moment return.

VIII. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “you became imitators of us,” 1:6

2. “a living and true God,” 1:9

3. “the wrath to come,” 1:10

4. “as a nursing mother,” 2:7

5. “hostile to all men,” 2:15

6. “Satan hindered us,” 2:18

7. “complete what is lacking in your faith,” 3:10

8. sanctification, 4:3

9. asleep, 4:13

10. “will not precede those who have fallen asleep,” 4:15

11. “the trumpet of God,” 4:16

12. “the clouds,” 4:17

13. “so we shall always be with the Lord,” 4:17

14. sleep, 5:6,7

15. sober, 5:8

16. “breastplate of faith and love,” 5:8

17. “helmet, the hope of salvation,” 5:8

18. a holy kiss, 5:26

19. perseverance, II Thess. 1:4

20. eternal destruction, II Thess. 1:9

21. apostasy, II Thess. 2:3

22. “the Lord will slay with the breath of His mouth,” II Thess. 2:8

IX. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. Silvanus, II Thess. 1:1

2. archangel, I Thess. 4:16

3. “while they are saying. . .,” I Thess. 5:3

4. “the man of lawlessness,” II Thess. 2:3

5. “he who now restrains,” II Thess. 2:7

6. “who leads an unruly life,” II Thess. 3:6

X. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Thessalonica, 1:1

2. Macedonia, 1:8

3. Achaia, 1:8

4. Philippi, 2:2

5. Judea, 2:14

6. Athens, 3:1

XI. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Paul describes his preaching in five ways in 2:3 and 5. List them.

2. Why would Paul not accept money from the churches he preached to? (2:9)

3. How does 4:11 relate to the historical situation that caused Paul to write
this letter? (Also II Thess. 3:6-12)

4. How does 4:17 relate to the rapture?

5. What is 5:1 referring to?

6. Why does Paul describe the believer as a soldier” (5:8)

7. How does 5:12-13 relate to today’s ministers?

8. List the things that believers are called on to do in 5:14-22.

9. Is mankind a trichotomy based on 5:23?

10. What is the central theme of II Thess. 1? How is it different from I
Thess. 1?

11. Does II Thess. 2:4 demand the rebuilding of the Jewish Temple?

12. How is II Thess. 2:11 related to human freewill and responsibility?

13. How does II Thess. 2:13-15 balance predestination and freewill?

INTRODUCTION TO THE PASTORAL LETTERS

I and II TIMOTHY and TITUS

I. OPENING STATEMENT

A. The geographical locations mentioned in I Timothy, Titus, and II Timothy
do not fit into the chronology of either Acts or Paul’s other letters.

1. visit to Ephesus (cf. I Tim. 1:3)

2. visit to Troas (cf. II Tim. 4:13)

3. visit to Miletus (cf. II Tim. 4:20)

4. mission to Crete (cf. Titus 1:5)

5. mission to Spain (from Clement of Rome, A.D. 95 and the introduction to
the Muratorian Canon, A.D. 180-200)

Therefore, I think that Paul was released from prison (early to mid 60’s,
which is documented in I Clement 5, written about A.D. 95) and took a fourth
missionary journey, was then rearrested and killed before A.D. 68 (Nero’s
suicide).

B. The purpose of these letters has generally been thought to have been
administrative (church organization). However, in the
New International Biblical Commentary, Vol. 13, on I and II Timothy and
Titus, Gordon Fee convinces me that the occasion for the letters was false
teaching emerging within the house churches of Ephesus (I Timothy) and on the
island of Crete (Titus).

C. In some ways the Pastoral Letters establish an administrative pattern
similar to the Essenes’ Manual of Discipline. These guidelines were all
the more necessary in light of the early and pervasive deviation from Apostolic
teachings and form.

D. The similarity between the Pastoral Letters and Luke’s vocabulary in Luke
and Acts may be due to the fact that Paul used him as a scribe (cf. C. F. C.
Moule, The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles: A Reappraisal). S. G. Wilson
has even asserted in Luke and the Pastoral Epistles that these three
books may have been Luke’s attempt to write a third volume delineating the
gospel’s movement beyond Rome.

E. Why are these three books lumped together? Is it possible they deal with
separate times/places/issues? Only I Timothy and Titus have anything to do with
church organization. It is really (1) their vocabulary; (2) the false teachers
that seem to unify these books; and (3) the fact they do not easily fit into the
chronology of Acts (if taken together).

II. AUTHOR

A. The letters themselves claim to be
from Paul the Apostle (cf. I Tim. 1:1; II Tim. 1:1; and Titus 1:1) to his two
apostolic representatives, Timothy and Titus.

B. The issue of authorship of the Pastoral Letters began to be debated in the
19^th and 20^th centuries. The rejection of Paul’s
authorship is usually based on

1. a developed church organization (qualifications for leaders)

2. a developed gnosticism (documented in the second century)

3. a developed theology (creedal statements)

4. a variation of vocabulary and style (one-third of the words are not used
in Paul’s other writings)

C. These differences can be explained

1. these are Paul’s last writings, possibly using Luke as a scribe

2. vocabulary and style are dependent on the occasion

3. gnostic ideas were a development of first century Jewish thought (cf. Dead
Sea Scrolls)

4. Paul was a brilliant theologian and creative writer with a large
vocabulary

D. There is a growing understanding of historical precedent

1. Paul’s use of a professional Christian scribe (in this case, possibly
Luke)

2. Paul’s use of co-writers (i.e. part of his mission team, cf. II Tim. 4:11)

3. Paul’s use of liturgical or hymnic quotes (a good summary is found in
Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, edited by Hawthorne and Martin,
published by IVP, p. 664).

Suggestions that portions of the Pastoral Letters are quotes from other
sources help explain the numbers of hapax
legomena (words used only one time in the NT), non-Pauline idioms, and
unique use of Pauline terms.

a. doxologies (cf. I Tim. 1:17; 6:15-17)

b. list of vices (cf. I Tim. 1:9-10)

c. appropriate conduct for wives (cf. I Tim. 2:9-3:1a)

d. qualifications for ministers (cf. I Tim. 3:1b-13)

e. hymnic confessions (cf. I Tim. 2:5-6; 3:16; II Tim. 1:9-10; Titus 3:3-7)

4. hymns (cf. I Tim. 6:11-12,15-16; II Tim. 2:11-13; Titus 2:11-14)

a. OT midrash (cf. I Tim. 1:9-10; 2:9-3:1a; 5:17-18; II Tim. 2:19-21;
Titus 3:3-7)

b. formula

(1) “faithful is the word” (cf. I Tim. 1:15; 2:9-3:1a; II Tim. 2:11-13; Titus
3:3-8)

(2) “knowing this that” (cf. I Tim. 1:9-10; II Tim. 3:1-5)

(3) “these things” (cf. I Tim. 4:6,11; II Tim. 2:14; Titus 1:15-16; 2:1)

5. quote from a Greek poet (cf. Titus 1:12 [Epimenides and/or Euripides])

E. It is surprising that a supposed second century “Paulinist” would mention
such specific details as people’s names (i.e. Hymenaeus, I Tim. 1:20; II Tim.
2:17; Alexander, I Tim. 1:20; Zenas, Titus 3:13) and events (Trophimus’ illness
at Miletus, II Tim. 4:20; or the widow’s role, I Tim. 5:9) that are not
mentioned elsewhere in Paul’s writings. These things do not fit with the
assumption of pseudographisity.

For a good article on pseudonymity related to NT letters, see
An Introduction to the New Testament, by Carson, Moo, and Morris, pp.
367-371.

III. DATE

A. If it is true that Paul was released from prison (after the close of the
book of Acts, possibly A.D. 59-61), then is there any early tradition of his
post-prison activities (i.e. preaching in Spain, cf. Rom. 15:24,28)?

1. the Pastoral Letters (cf. II Tim. 4:10)

2. I Clement 5

a. Paul preached in the east and west (i.e. Spain)

b. Paul was killed under “the prefects” (i.e. Tigellinus and Sabinus, who
functioned in the last year of Nero’s reign, A.D. 68)

3. the introduction to the Muratorian Fragment (a list of canonical books
from Rome about A.D. 180-200)

4. Eusebius’ Historical Ecclesiastical History 2:22:1-8 states that
Paul was released from Roman imprisonment

B. It seems that I Timothy and Titus were written close together before
Paul’s re-arrest. II Timothy is Paul’s last writing and good-bye while in
prison.

C. Possible chronology of Paul’s writings following F. F. Bruce and Murry
Harris with minor adaptations.

Book Date Place of Writing Relation
to Acts

1. Galatians 48 Syrian Antioch 14:28; 15:2

2. I Thessalonians 50 Corinth 18:5

3. II Thessalonians 50 Corinth

4. I Corinthians 55 Ephesus 19:20

5. II Corinthians 56 Macedonia 20:2

6. Romans 57 Corinth 20:3

7.-10. Prison Letters

Colossians early 60’s Rome

Ephesians early 60’s Rome

Philemon early 60’s Rome

Philippians late 62-63 28:30-31

11.-13. Fourth Missionary Journey

I Timothy 63 (or later, Macedonia

Titus 63 but before Ephesus (?)

II Timothy 64 a.d. 68) Rome

IV. RECIPIENTS

A. The name, Pastoral Epistles, comes from D. N. Berdot’s commentary of A.D.
1703. It speaks of their unique character and content. Timothy and Titus,
however, are not pastors, but apostolic delegates.

B. These letters were written to churches, but under the literary form of
letters to Paul’s co-workers, Timothy and Titus. Paul addresses the
congregations as he addresses his leadership team. Hints of Paul’s wider
audience are

1. the formal introductions mentioning his apostleship

2. the plural “you” in the final close of all three letters

3. Paul’s defense of his call (cf. I Tim. 2:7)

4. Paul’s writing to Timothy about things he would already have known from
his time with Paul (cf. I Tim. 3:15)

V. OCCASION/PURPOSE

A. The main purpose was to combat emerging heresies (cf. I Tim. 1:3-7). The
specific heresy may be a combination of Jewish and gnostic tendencies (much like
the false teachers of Ephesians and Colossians). Possibly there were two
distinct groups.

B. The OT gives specific guidelines for the organization of the community of
faith. The NT does not contain specific instructions concerning the organization
or polity of the church. The Pastoral Letters (I Timothy, II Timothy, and Titus)
are as close as it comes to NT guidelines.

C. I Timothy was written:

1. to request Timothy to stay on at Ephesus (cf. I Tim. 1:3)

2. to deal with the false teachers (cf. I Tim. 1:19-20; 4:1-5; 6:4-5,20-21)

3. to help organize the leadership (cf. I Tim. 3)

D. Titus had a similar assignment to deal with heresy and organization on
Crete (cf. 1:5)

E. II Timothy finds Paul in prison with little hope of release (cf. 4:6-8,
16-18)

F. There is a strong sense of “sound teaching” (i.e. correct doctrine) that
rings through these letters (cf. I Tim. 1:10; 4:6; 6:3; II Tim. 1:13; 4:3; Titus
1:9; 2:1) or “sound in the faith” (cf. Titus 1:13; 2:2). God entrusted this
“sound teaching” to Paul (cf. I Tim. 1:11); Paul entrusted it to Timothy (cf. I
Tim. 6:20) and Timothy was to entrust it to faithful men (cf. II Tim. 2:2).

VI. THE FALSE TEACHERS

A. It is difficult to discuss the false teachers because of our lack of
specific first century information. Paul is writing to those who knew these
false teachers firsthand. He, therefore, does not fully discuss their theology,
but usually condemns their lifestyle and motives (as does Jude).

B. The main interpretive issue relates to whether they were

1. Jewish

2. Greek

3. a combination

C. The false teachers seem to be a mixture of Jewish and Gnostic elements.
But how did these totally divergent religious movements merge?

1. Judaism always incorporated some dualistic elements (cf. Dead Sea Scrolls)

2. Gnosticism of the second century developed these common near-eastern
philosophical/ theological themes

3. Judaism of the diaspora was much more eclectic than modern scholarship
previously imagined

4. there is a first century precedent for a Jewish-gnostic heresy in the book
of Colossians

D. Some of the elements of the false teachers

1. Jewish aspects

a. false teachers

(1) teachers of the Law (cf. I Tim. 1:7)

(2) the circumcision party (cf. Titus 1:10)

b. false teachers warned about Jewish myths (cf. I Tim. 3:9; Titus 1:14)

c. false teachers concerned with food laws (cf. I Tim. 4:1-5)

d. false teachers concerned with genealogies (cf. I Tim. 1:4; 4:7; II Tim.
4:4; Titus 1:14-15; 3:9)

2. Gnostic aspects (See Special Topic at Titus 1)

a. asceticism forbidding and exempting

(1) forbid marriage (cf. I Tim. 2:15; 4:3)

(2) exempt certain foods (cf. I Tim. 4:4)

b. sexual exploitation (cf. I Tim. 4:3; II Tim. 3:6-7; Titus 1:11,15)

c. emphasis on knowledge (cf. I Tim. 4:1-3; 6:20)

VII. CANONICITY

A. Paul’s letters were gathered together into one volume called “the Apostle”
and then circulated among all the churches. The only Greek manuscript of Paul’s
letters that lacks I and II Timothy and Titus (also II Thessalonians and
Philemon) is a papyrus manuscript from the 200’s, called P⁴⁶ (from
the Chester Beatty papyri). Even this is conjecture because the manuscript is
missing several concluding papyrus pages. All other Greek manuscripts contain
what came to be called “the Pastoral Epistles.”

B. Ancient sources which quote, allude to, or mention the Pastoral Letters

1. early church leaders

a. Pseudo-Barnabas (A.D. 70-130) quotes II Timothy and Titus

b. Clement of Rome (A.D. 95-97) alludes to I Timothy and II Timothy and
quotes Titus 3:1

c. Polycarp (A.D. 110-150) alludes to I Timothy, II Timothy, and Titus

d. Hermas (A.D. 115-140) quotes I Timothy and II Timothy

e. Irenaeus (A.D. 130-202) quotes often from I Timothy, II Timothy, and Titus

f. Diognetus (A.D. 150) quotes Titus

g. Tertullian (A.D. 150-220) quotes I Timothy, II Timothy, and Titus

h. Origen (A.D. 185-254) quotes I Timothy, II Timothy, and Titus

2. list of canonical books which includes the Pastoral Letters

a. Muratorian Fragment (from Rome about A.D. 200)

b. Barococcio (A.D. 206)

c. Apostolic List (A.D. 300)

d. Cheltenham List (A.D. 360)

e. Athanasius’ Letter (A.D. 367)

3. early versions which contain the Pastoral Letters

a. old Latin (A.D. 150-170)

b. old Syriac (A.D. 200)

c. early church councils which affirmed the inspired status of the Pastoral
Letters

d. Nicea (A.D. 325-340)

e. Hippo (A.D. 393)

f. Carthage (A.D. 397 and 419)

C. A process of consensus among the early Christian congregations of the
Roman Empire developed the canon. This consensus was surely affected by internal
and external social pressures. The basic requirements for inclusion in the canon
seem to have been

1. relationship to an Apostle

2. a message consistent with other Apostolic writings

3. the changed lives of those who encountered these writings

4. a growing agreement in the lists of accepted writings among these early
churches

D. The need for a canon developed because of

1. the delayed Second Coming

2. the geographical distance between churches and Apostles

3. the death of the Apostles

4. the early rise of false teachers

a. Judaism

b. Greek philosophy

c. mixture of Jewish and Gnostic elements (Colossians)

d. other Greco-Roman mystery religions (e.g. Mithra)

This occurred as the gospel spread to different cultures.

E. The issue of canonicity is historically related to authorship. The early
church accepted the Pastoral Letters as Paul’s writings. My own presuppositions
about canonicity include the involvement of the Spirit, not only in the writing
of the Scriptures, but also in their gathering and preservation. The question of
Paul’s authorship (which I assume) does not affect inspiration and canonization.

VIII. I TIMOTHY – TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “my true child in the faith,” 1:2

2. blasphemer, 1:13

3. Amen, 1:17

4. mediator, 2:5

5. ransom, 2:6

6. “lift up holy hands,” 2:8

7. “above reproach, 3:2

8. “addicted to much wine,” 3:8

9. “the mystery of the faith,” 3:9

10. “doctrines of demons,” 4:1

11. “seared in their own conscience,” 4:2

12. “worldly fables,” 4:7

13. “the laying on of hands,” 4:14; 5:22

14. presbytery, 4:14

15. “honor widows who are widows indeed,” 5:3

16. “previous pledge,” 5:12

17. “double honor,” 5:17

18. contentment, 6:6

19. unapproachable light, 6:16

IX. I TIMOTHY- PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. the Father, 1:2

2. “teachers of the Law,” 1:7

3. “the King eternal,” 1:17

4. Hymenaeus and Alexander, 1:20

5. overseer, 3:2

6. deacons, 3:8

7. women, 3:11

8. elders, 5:17

9. Pontius Pilate, 6:13

X. I TIMOTHY – MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Macedonia, 1:3

2. Ephesus, 1:3

XI. I TIMOTHY – DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Describe in your own words the false teachers mentioned in 1:3-4.

2. Does 1:9-11 reflect the Ten Commandments? If so, what are the differences?

3. Why did Paul consider himself the foremost of all sinners? (1:15)

4. To what event in Timothy’s life does 1:18 refer?

5. What does it mean that Paul handed someone over to Satan? (1:20)

6. Why is 2:4 such an important verse?

7. Explain 2:9 in light of first century culture.

8. How does 2:12 apply today?

9. Explain 2:15 in your own words.

10. List the qualifications of an overseer. (3:1-7)

11. Why is 3:16 thought to be a quote from an early hymn?

12. Why did the false teachers forbid marriage? (4:3)

13. How does 4:4 relate to Romans 14?

14. Explain 4:10 in your own words.

15. What event is 4:14 describing?

16. How does 5:19 reflect the OT?

17. To what cultural problem is 5:23 referring?

18. Explain 6:10 in your own words.

19. Where do the titles for Jesus in 6:15 come from?

XII. II TIMOTHY – TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “kindle afresh the gift of God,” 1:6

2. “the treasure which has been entrusted to you,” 1:14

3. gangrene, 2:17

4. “having this seal,” 2:19

5. vessels, 2:20

6. Master, 2:21

7. “in season and out of season,” 4:2

8. myths, 4:4

9. “the books. . .parchments,” 4:13

10. “the lion’s mouth,” 4:17

XIII. II TIMOTHY – PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. my forefathers, 1:3

2. Lois, 1:5

3. Eunice, 1:5

4. Onesiphorus, 1:16

5. Hymenaeus, 2:17

6. Philetus, 2:17

7. Jannes and Jambres, 3:8,9

8. evangelist, 4:5

9. Demas, 4:10

10. Luke, 4:11

11. Mark, 4:11

12. Tychicus, 4:12

13. Alexander, 4:14

XIV. II TIMOTHY – MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Asia, 1:15

2. Rome, 1:17

3. Ephesus, 1:18; 4:12

4. Antioch, 3:11

5. Iconium, 3:11

6. Lystra, 3:11

7. Thessalonica, 4:10

8. Galatia, 4:10

9. Dalmatia, 4:10

10. Troas, 4:13

11. Corinth, 4:20

12. Miletus, 4:20

XV. II TIMOTHY – DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Where was Paul imprisoned?

2. Explain 1:12 in your own words.

3. How is 1:9 like Titus 3:5a?

4. What did Onesiphorus do for Paul in prison? (1:16-18)

5. II Timothy 2:2 is a very important verse. Why?

6. Why is 2:11 thought to be a quote from an early hymn?

7. To what is 2:15 referring?

8. Does 2:25 imply that God gives repentance? If so what are the
implications?

9. List the things that believers should do to help the “seduced ones.”
(2:24-25)

10. Who and what is 3:6-7 dealing with?

11. Why is 3:16 such an important verse?

12. Why could Paul not heal Trophimus?

INTRODUCTION TO TITUS

I. BRIEF BACKGROUND

A. Titus is part of the collection of Paul’s letters known as “the Pastoral
Letters.” This is because I Timothy, Titus, and II Timothy deal with Paul’s
admonitions to his co-workers on (1) how to deal with false teachers, (2) how to
establish leadership in local churches, and (3) how to encourage godliness. The
apparent chronological order of these books is: I Timothy and/or Titus then
later, II Timothy. Titus deals with the same subjects as I Timothy. Titus may
have been written first because its introduction is so lengthy and theologically
involved, much like Romans.

B. The geographical movements of Paul and these co-workers do not fit into
the geographical movements of Paul in Acts. Therefore, many assume that this is
evidence that Paul was released from prison and conducted a fourth missionary
journey.

C. The dates for this fourth missionary journey would have to be sometime
between the early A.D. 60’s to A.D. 68 because Paul was beheaded under Nero and
Nero killed himself in A.D. 68 (many assume in the persecution of A.D. 65).

II. TITUS, THE MAN

A. Titus was one of Paul’s most trusted co-workers. This is evidenced by the
fact that Paul sent him to the trouble spots of Corinth and Crete.

B. He was a full Gentile (Timothy was only half-Greek), converted under
Paul’s preaching. Paul refused to circumcise him (cf. Gal. 2:3).

C. He is mentioned often in Paul’s letters (cf. II Cor. 2:13; 7:6-15; 8:6-24;
12:18; Gal. 2:1-3; II Tim. 4:10) and it is very surprising that Luke does not
mention him in Acts. Some commentaries theorize that:

1. he may have been a relative of Luke (possibly a brother) and to include
his name would have been seen as an act of cultural impropriety on Luke’s part

2. Titus is Luke’s major source of information about Paul’s life and ministry
and, therefore, like Luke, would not be named.

D. He accompanied Paul and Barnabas to the all important Jerusalem Council,
recorded in Acts 15, where the issue of the new Gentile believers’ relationship
to the Mosaic Law was debated and settled.

E. This book focuses on advice Paul gives Titus about his ministry on Crete.
Titus is acting as Paul’s official surrogate/legate.

F. The last information in the NT about Titus is that he was sent to minister
in Dalmatia (cf. II Tim. 4:10).

III. THE FALSE TEACHERS

A. There is obviously a group of false teachers on Crete who opposed Paul’s
gospel.

1. Their theological teachings led to conflict with the godly lifestyle that
is expected of all believers.

2. references to godly living: 1:1,16; 2:7,14; 3:1,8,14

3. summaries of character qualities: 2:11-14; 3:4-7

B. There is an obvious Jewish flavor to this false teaching (cf. 1:10,14;
3:8-9). These heresies are a combination of Jewish legalism and Greek
speculative thought (gnosticism, see Special Topic at 1:1). They are similar to
the false teachers addressed in I Timothy, Colossians, and Ephesians. The focus
of the Pastoral Letters is on heresy, and not exclusively church organization.

IV. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. godliness, 1:1

2. “in the hope of eternal life,” 1:2

3. “which God who cannot lie,” 1:2

4. hospitable, 1:8

5. Jewish myths, 1:14

6. sound doctrine, 2:1

7. perseverance, 2:2

8. “in the present age,” 2:12

9. “the blessed hope,” 2:13

10. redeem, 2:14

11. “the washing of regeneration,” 3:5

V. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. elders, 1:5

2. overseer, 1:7

3. “those of the circumcision,” 1:10

4. “a prophet of their own,” 1:12

5. “to rulers, to authorities,” 3:1

6. Tychicus, 3:12

7. Apollos, 3:13

VI. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Crete, 1:5

2. Nicopolis, 3:12

VII. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Why is it significant that both God the Father and Jesus the Son are
called “Savior” (3 times each) in Titus?

2. How does 1:16 relate to false teachers?

3. Does 2:1-5 refer to church leaders or church members?

4. Why is 2:11 such an important verse?

5. Does 2:13 call Jesus God?

6. Why is 3:5a a basic theme of Paul?

7. Does 3:5b teach baptismal regeneration?

INTRODUCTION TO PHILEMON

I. OPENING STATEMENTS

A. This book is an example of a private letter, so common in the first
century Greco-Roman world. It probably fit on one papyrus sheet (cf. III John).
It is uncertain to whom it is primarily addressed: (1) Philemon; (2) Apphia and
Archippus (cf. Col. 4:17) or (3) or in some sense, the entire house church.

B. This letter provides a window into

1. the pastoral methods of the Apostle Paul

2. the home churches of the first century (cf. Rom. 16:5; I Cor. 10:19; Col.
4:15)

C. Christianity was already radically changing the social milieu of the
Mediterranean world. Social barriers to the gospel were falling (cf. I Cor.
12:13; Gal. 3:28; Col. 3:11).

II. AUTHOR

A. The personal nature of the letter convinces most readers (one exception,
F. C. Baur) that the author was Paul, the Apostle.

B. Philemon and Colossians are closely related

1. Same origin

2. Same people give greetings

3. Same closing

4. Tychicus delivered the letter of Colossians and traveled with Onesimus
(cf. Col. 4:7,9). If Philemon is Pauline, so is Colossians (which has been
doubted by several modern scholars).

C. It is listed among Paul’s letters by both the early heretic Marcion (who
came to Rome in A.D. 140’s) and the list of canonical books, the Muratorian
Fragment (written in Rome between A.D. 180-200).

III. DATE

A. The date of this letter is linked to one of Paul’s imprisonments (Ephesus,
Philippi, Caesarea, or Rome). A Roman imprisonment fits the facts of Acts the
best.

B. Once Rome is assumed to be the place of imprisonment, the question
arises—which time? Paul was in jail in the early 60’s and this is recorded in
Acts. However, he was released and wrote the Pastoral letters (I & II Timothy
and Titus) and was then rearrested and killed before June 9, A.D. 68 (Nero’s
suicide). The best educated guess for the writing of Colossians, Ephesians, and
Philemon is Paul’s first imprisonment, early 60’s. Philippians was probably
written toward the mid 60’s.

C. Tychicus, along with Onesimus, probably took the letters of Colossians,
Ephesians, and Philemon to Asia Minor. Later (possibly several years later)
Ephaphroditus, recovered from his physical illness, took the letter of
Philippians back to his home church.

D. Possible chronology of Paul’s writings following F .F. Bruce and Murray
Harris (with minor adaption).

Book Date Place of Writing Relation to Acts

1. Galatians 48 Syrian Antioch 14:28; 15:2

2. I Thessalonians 50 Corinth 18:5

3. II Thessalonians 50 Corinth

4. I Corinthians 55 Ephesus 19:20

5. II Corinthians 56 Macedonia 20:2

6. Romans 57 Corinth 20:3

7.-10. Prison Letters

Colossians early 60’s Rome

Ephesians early 60’s Rome

Philemon early 60’s Rome

Philippians late 62-63 Rome 28:30-31

11.-13. Fourth Missionary Journey

I Timothy 63 (or later, Macedonia

Titus 63 but before Ephesus (?)

II Timothy 64 a.d. 68) Rome

IV. OCCASION FOR THE LETTER (people mentioned in Philemon)

A. Philemon was a slave owner in Colossae. He was a convert of Paul,
probably while Paul was ministering in Ephesus.

B. Onesimus was a runaway slave. He was also a convert of Paul, while in
prison at Rome (A.D. 61-63). It is uncertain how they met. Perhaps (1) both were
imprisoned, (2) Onesimus was sent on an errand to Paul or (3) Onesimus sought
Paul for advice after changing his mind about running away.

C. Epaphras was a believer from Asia Minor and the founder of the Churches in
the Lycus River Valley, (Colossae, Laodicea and Hierapolis). He brought word to
Paul in prison about the heresy in Colossae and about Philemon’s faithfulness.

D. Tychicus was the bearer of Paul’s three letters to this area: Colossians,
Ephesians, and Philemon (cf. Col. 4:7-9; Eph. 6:21-22). Onesimus also went back
with him to face his master (cf. v. 11). Philemon is one of two private letters
preserved in the New Testament (cf. III John).

About fifty years later (A.D. 110) Ignatius, on his way to Rome to be
martyred, wrote a letter (“To the Ephesians” 1:3) to the bishop of Ephesus named
Onesimus! It could have been this converted slave!

V. PURPOSE OF THE LETTER

A. It shows how Paul used his apostolic authority and pastoral encouragement.

B. It shows how Christianity made brothers and sisters out of slaves and
slave owners, rich and poor! This truth would, in time, radically change the
Roman Empire.

C. It shows Paul’s belief that he would be released from Roman imprisonment
and return to Asia Minor.

VI. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “the church in your house,” v. 2

2. my child, Onesimus, v. 10

3. useless. . .useful, v. 11

4. “you own me even your own self,” v. 19

VII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. Apphia, v. 1

2. Onesimus, v. 10

3. Epaphras, v. 23

4. Mark, v. 24

VIII. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT — NONE

IX. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. How is Paul asserting his apostolic authority in 1:8?

2. How does this little book impact the issue of slavery?

3. Does v. 18 imply that Onesimus stole from his master?

4. Does v. 19 imply that Paul normally used a scribe?

INTRODUCTION TO HEBREWS

I. CRUCIAL OPENING STATEMENT

As I have studied this book it has become more and more obvious that my
theology has been molded by Paul’s. It is very difficult for me to allow the
plurality of the other NT authors to present their inspired thoughts because I
tend to put them into Pauline categories. This is particularly evident in the
emphasis of Hebrews on continuing in the faith. In the book of Hebrews faith is
not a forensic position (justification by faith), but a faithful life to the end
(chapters 11-12).

I am afraid that many of the questions I struggle with in Hebrews would have
never been asked by its author (nor Peter, nor James). Hebrews is an occasional
document, like all the NT books. I must let the author speak even when he/she
makes me uncomfortable; even when he/she does not use my cherished categories or
even radically disrupts those categories. I dare not substitute my systematic
theology for an inspired NT author’s message.

I prefer to repent of my theological dogmatism and live within a NT tension
that I do not fully understand or like! I am afraid I view the NT through the
filter of a modern evangelical, conventionist grid. I want to affirm biblical
promises; promises of God’s love, provision, and keeping power; yet I am
convicted by the powerful warnings and mandates of the NT authors. I desperately
need to hear Hebrews, but it is so painful! I want to explain away the tension.
I suppose, in reality, I want to affirm a free salvation and a cost-everything
Christian life. But where do I draw the line when the ideal is not met? Is
eternal fellowship with God an initial faith response or a continuing faith
response? Hebrews clearly states the mandate of a continuing faith response. The Christian life is viewed from the end, not the
beginning!

This is not meant to imply a works-oriented salvation, but a works-oriented
confirmation. Faith is the evidence, not the mechanism (which is grace).
Believers are not saved by works, but unto works. Works are not the means of
salvation, but the result of salvation. Godly, faithful, daily Christlikeness is
not something we do, but who we are in Him. If there is no changed, and
changing, life of faith there is no evidence, no security. Only God knows the
heart and the circumstances. Assurance is meant to be a companion in a life of
faith, not an initial theological assertion devoid of lifestyle evidence.

My prayer is that we will allow this inspired NT author to clearly speak and
not relegate Hebrews to a theological footnote in a systematic theological grid,
be it Calvinistic or Arminian.

II. OPENING INSIGHTS

A. This book uses OT texts interpreted by rabbinical hermeneutics to
communicate its message. In order to understand the original author’s intent,
this book must be interpreted in light of first century rabbinical Judaism, not
modern western thought.

B. This book begins like a sermon (no salutation or typical greeting) and
ends like a letter (typical Pauline close of chapter 13). It is possibly a
synagogue homily turned into a letter. The author calls his/her book “a word of
exhortation” in 13:22. This same phrase is also used in Acts 13:15 of a sermon.

C. This is an insightful New Covenant commentary on the Mosaic covenant:

1. a very authoritative view of the OT

2. a comparison of the old and new covenants

3. the only NT book which calls Jesus our high priest

D. This book is filled with warnings against falling away (“shrinking back”
cf. 10:38), or returning to Judaism (i.e. chapters 2,4,5,6,10,12; cf. No Easy
Salvation by R. C. Glaze, Jr., published by Insight Press).

E. Although it is an over-generalization, it is helpful to see Paul with his
emphasis on salvation as a finished work of the sovereign God (i.e.
justification by faith) assert security as an initial truth. Peter, James, and
the letters of I and II John emphasize the ongoing responsibilities of the New
Covenant and assert that security is daily, confirmed by a changed and changing
life. The author of Hebrews, emphasizing a life of faithfulness (cf. chapter
11), asserts security from an end-of-life perspective. Modern western rational
thinking tends to polarize these perspectives, while the NT writers, by one
divine author (i.e. the Spirit), wants to hold them in tension and affirm all
three. Assurance is never the goal, but the by-product of an active faith in the
promises of God.

III. AUTHORSHIP

A. Although the authorship of Hebrews is in dispute, several early Gnostic
works (i.e. Gospel of Truth, Gospel of Philip and The Apocrypha
of John) quote it several times, which shows it was considered part of the
authoritative Christian writings by the second century (cf. Andrea Helmbold’s
The Nag Hammadi Gnostic Texts and the Bible, p. 91).

B. The Eastern Church (Alexandria, Egypt) accepted Paul’s authorship as is
seen by its listing Hebrews in Paul’s writings in the early papyrus manuscript P⁴⁶.
This manuscript is called the Chester Beatty Papyri and was copied at the end of
the second century. It places Hebrews after Romans. Some Alexandrian leaders
recognized the literary problems related to Paul’s authorship.

1. Clement of Alexandria (A.D. 150-215, quoted by Eusebius) says that Paul
wrote it in Hebrew and Luke translated it into Greek.

2. Origen (A.D. 185-253) asserted that the thoughts are Paul’s but it was
written by a later follower, such as Luke or Clement of Rome.

C. This book is omitted in the list of Paul’s letters adopted by the Western
Church called the Muratorian Fragment (a list of NT canonical books from Rome
about A.D. 180-200).

D. What we do know about the author

1. He was apparently a second generation Jewish Christian (2:3).

2. He quotes from the Greek translation of the OT called the Septuagint.

3. He uses ancient tabernacle procedures and not current temple rituals.

4. He writes using classical Greek grammar and syntax (this book is not
platonic. Its orientation is the OT, not Philo).

E. This book is anonymous, but the author was well known to the recipients
(cf. 6:9-10; 10:34; 13:7,9).

F. Why there are doubts about Paul’s authorship

1. The style is so different (except chapter 13) from Paul’s other writings.

2. The vocabulary is different.

3. There are subtle differences in word and phrase usage and emphasis.

4. When Paul calls his friends and co-workers “brother” the person’s name
always comes first (cf. Rom. 16:23; I Cor. 1:1; 16:12; II Cor. 1:1; 2:13; Phil.
2:25) but 13:23 has “our brother Timothy.”

F. Theories of Authorship

1. Clement of Alexandria’s in his book Hypotyposes
(quoted by Eusebius) believed Luke translated into Greek Paul’s original writing
in Hebrew (Luke used excellent Koine Greek).

2. Origen said either Luke or Clement of Rome wrote it but followed Paul’s
teaching.

3. Jerome and Augustine accepted Paul’s authorship only to facilitate the
book’s acceptance into the Canon by the Western Church.

4. Tertullian (De Pudic. 20) believed Barnabas (a Levite associated
with Paul) wrote it.

5. Martin Luther said Apollos, an Alexandrian-trained intellectual
associated with Paul (cf. Acts 18:24), wrote it.

6. Calvin said Clement of Rome (the first to quote it in A.D. 96) or Luke
was the author.

7. Adolph von Harnack said Aquila and Priscilla (they taught Apollos the
full gospel and were associated with Paul and Timothy, cf. Acts 18:26) wrote it.

8. Sir William Ramsey said Philip (the evangelist) wrote it for Paul while
Paul was in prison at Caesarea.

9. Others have asserted Philip or Silas (Silvanus).

IV. RECIPIENTS

A. The title “to the Hebrews” addresses the Hebrew people, therefore, the
book was written to all Jews (cf. Clement of Alexandria, quoted by Eusebius,
Eccl. Hist. VI, 14).

B. The internal evidence following R. C. Glaze, Jr.’s No Easy Salvation
asserts that a specific group of believing Jews or a synagogue is being
addressed (cf. 6:10; 10:32-34; 12:4; 13:7,19,23).

1. They seem to be Jewish believers because of the numerous OT quotes and
the subject matter (cf. 3:1; 4:14-16; 6:9; 10:34; 13:1-25).

2. They had experienced some persecution (cf. 10:32; 12:4). Judaism was
recognized as a legal religion by the Roman authorities while later in the first
century Christianity was considered illegal when it separated from synagogue
worship.

3. They had been believers for a long time, but were still immature (cf.
5:11-14). They were afraid to break completely with Judaism (cf. 6:1-2).

C. The ambiguous text of 13:24 could imply it was written (1) from Italy or
(2) to Italy, probably Rome.

D. The location of the recipients is linked to the different theories
concerning authorship.

1. Alexandria – Apollos

2. Antioch – Barnabas

3. Caesarea – Luke or Philip

4. Rome – Clement of Rome and the mention of Italy in 13:24.

5. Spain – This was the theory of Nicolas of Lyra (A.D. 1270-1340)

V. DATE

A. Just before the destruction of Jerusalem by the Roman General (later
Emperor) Titus, in A.D. 70

1. the author mentions Paul’s companion Timothy by name (cf. 13:23)

2. the author refers to sacrifices continuing (cf. 8:13; 10:1-2) in the
Temple

3. the author mentions persecution which may fit Nero’s day (A.D. 54-68)

4. the author encourages the readers not to return to Judaism and its
rituals

B. After A.D. 70

1. the author uses the rituals of the tabernacle, not Herod’s temple

2. the author mentions persecution

a. possibly under Nero (cf. 10:32-34)

b. later possibly under Domitian (cf. 12:4-13)

3. the book may relate to the revival of rabbinical Judaism (writings from
Jamnia) late in the first century

C. Before A.D. 95 because the book is quoted by Clement of Rome

VI. PURPOSE

A. The Jewish Christians are encouraged to leave the synagogue and identify
publicly (fully) with the church (cf. 13:13).

B. The Jewish Christians are encouraged to take up the missionary mandate of
the gospel (cf. Matt. 28:19-20; Acts 1:8).

C. The Jewish unbelievers in fellowship with these Jewish Christians are the
focus of chapters 6 and 10. Notice the presence of three groups, “we,” “you,”
and “they.” They are warned to personally respond to the abundant and clear
evidence in the lives of their Christian friends and co-worshipers.

D. This supposed historical reconstruction is taken from
No Easy Salvation by R. C. Glaze, Jr.

“The problem was not that of tension between the Christian majority and the
non-Christian minority. The very opposite was true. The Jewish Christians of
this congregation had so compromised their faith and sense of stewardship that
the two groups could worship together as one congregation. Neither group
seriously troubled the conscience of the other. No longer did the preaching of
the Christian group result in conviction and decision on the part of the unsaved
members of the synagogue. The Christians were in a state of stagnation because
of their unwillingness to accept the full demands of courageous Christian
living. The unbelievers had become hardened by continual rejection to the point
of utter indifference. These groups had now become compatible bedfellows.

The reluctance of the Christian group to ‘press on unto perfection’ (6:1) was
motivated by two phenomena: high regard for the traditions of Judaism and
unwillingness to pay the price of full identification with Christianity, which
was becoming more and more a Gentile movement” (p. 23).

VII. BRIEF OUTLINE OF HEBREWS

1:1-3 Superiority of the Son over the prophets

1:4-2:18 Superiority of the Son over the angels

3:1-4:13 Superiority of the Son over the Mosaic Covenant

4:14-5:10; 6:13-7:28 Superiority of the Son over the Aaronic Priesthood

5:11-6:12 Superiority of the believing Jews over the unbelieving Jews

8:1-10:18 Superiority of the Son over the procedures of the Mosaic Covenant

10:19-13:25 Superiority of the Son advocated and revealed in believers

VIII. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “in these last days,” 1:2

2. “radiance of His glory,” 1:3

3. “exact representation of His nature,” 1:3

4. Majesty, 1:3

5. “so that we do not drift away from it,” 2:1

6. “the word spoken through angels,” 2:2

7. “He might taste death for everyone,” 2:9

8. “the perfect author of salvation,” 2:10

9. “a high priest,” 2:17; 4:15

10. propitiation, 2:17

11. the Apostle, 3:1

12. the High Priest, 3:1

13. confession, 3:1; 4:14

14. today, 3:13

15. “the seventh day,” 4:4

16. “a Sabbath rest,” 4:9

17. “passed through the heavens,” 4:14

18. “yet without sin,” 4:15

19. “let us draw near,” 4:16

20. “the elementary principles,” 5:12

21. washings, 6:2

22. “the promise,” 6:15

23. “the veil,” 6:19

24. “Jesus has become the guarantee of a better covenant,” 7:22

25. intercession, 7:25

26. tabernacle, 8:2

27. “a copy and shadow of the heavenly things,” 8:5

28. “a new covenant,” 8:8,13

29. “the Holy of Holies,” 9:3

30. Aaron’s rod, 9:4

31. mercy seat, 9:5

32. “so great a cloud of witnesses,” 12:1

33. “a root of bitterness,” 12:15

34. “heavenly Jerusalem,” 12:22

IX. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “the firstborn,” 1:6

2. “him who had the power of death,” 2:14

3. “who provoked Him,” 3:16

4. Melchizedek, 5:6

5. There are three groups mentioned in 5:11-6:8: “you,” “those,” and “we.” To
whom does each refer?

6. cherubim, 9:5

7. Enoch, 11:5

8. Rahab, 11:31

9. “the great Shepherd,” 13:20

10. Timothy, 13:23

X. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Salem, 7:1

2. Jericho, 11:30

3. Mount Zion, 12:22

4. Italy, 13:24

XI. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. List the aspects of “the son” mentioned in 1:2-4

2. Why are the angels mentioned so much in the early chapters of Hebrews?

3. How are angels related to believers? (1:14)

4. How was Jesus made a little lower than the angels? (2:9)

5. What is the great truth of 2:18; 4:15?

6. How are Moses and Jesus compared in 3:1-6?

7. What does 3:7 imply about the Spirit?

8. What is 3:12 talking about?

9. What does 3:11 mean, “they shall not enter my rest”?

10. What does 3:14 say about Christian assurance?

11. Explain 4:12 in your own words.

12. Why does our author bring up an ancient Canaanite priest? (5:6-10)

13. Explain the significance of 5:8-9.

14. List the doctrines in 6:1-2. Are they Jewish or Christian? Why?

15. Why does the term “impossible” in 6:6 refute those who believe you can be
saved, lost, saved?

16. Why is Melchizedek said to be without father and mother? (7:3)

17. Why is Abraham paying a tithe to Melchizedek so important? (7:4-10)

18. What do 8:13 and 10:4 imply about the OT?

19. How does 9:22 refute Hinduism?

20. How do 10:25 and 39 relate to the historical setting?

21. How is chapter 6 related to chapter 10?

22. Summarize chapter 11 in your own words.

23. To what is 12:2 referring?

24. Why is 13:8 so significant?

INTRODUCTION TO JAMES

I. OPENING STATEMENTS

A. This was Soren Kierkegaard’s favorite book in the New Testament because it
emphasizes practical, daily Christianity.

B. This was Martin Luther’s least favorite book in the New Testament because
it seems to contradict Paul’s “justification by faith” emphasis in Romans and
Galatians.

C. This is a very different genre from other NT books

1. very much like a new covenant book of Proverbs (i.e. wisdom literature)
spoken by a fiery prophet

2. written early after Jesus’ death and still very Jewish and practical

II. AUTHOR

A. The traditional author is James (Hebrew, “Jacob”), the half-brother of
Jesus (one of four, cf. Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 1:14; 12:17; Gal. 1:19). He
was the leader of the Jerusalem Church (A.D. 48-62, cf. Acts 15:13-21; Gal.
2:9).

1. He was called “James the Just” and later nicknamed “camel knees” because
he constantly prayed on his knees (from Hegesippus, quoted by Eusebius).

2. James was not a believer until after the resurrection (cf. Mark 3:21; John
7:5). Jesus appeared to him personally after the resurrection (cf. I Cor. 15:7).

3. He was present in the upper room WITH THE DISCIPLES (cf. Acts 1:14) with
the disciples (cf. Acts 1:14) and possibly also there when the Spirit came on
Pentecost.

4. He was married (cf. I Cor. 9:5).

5. He is referred to by Paul as a pillar (possibly an apostle, cf. Gal. 1:19)
but was not one of the Twelve (cf. Gal. 2:9; Acts 12:17; 15:13ff).

6. In Antiquities of the Jews, 20:9:1, Josephus says that he was
stoned in A.D. 62 by orders from the Sadducees of the Sanhedrin, while another
tradition (the second century writers, Clement of Alexandria or Hegesippus) says
he was pushed off the wall of the Temple.

7. For many generations after Jesus’ death a relative of Jesus was appointed
leader of the church in Jerusalem.

B. In Studies in the Epistle of James, A. T. Robertson affirms James’
authorship:

“There are many proofs that the epistle was written by the author of the
speech in Acts 15:13-21—delicate similarities of thought and style too subtle
for mere imitation or copying. The same likeness appears between the Epistle of
James and the letter to Antioch, probably written also by James (Acts 15:23-29).
There are, besides, apparent reminiscences of the Sermon on the Mount, which
James may have heard personally or at least heard the substance of it. There is
the same vividness of imagery in the epistle that is so prominent a
characteristic of the teaching of Jesus” (p. 2).

A. T. Robertson is here following J. B. Mayor’s The Epistle of St. James,
pp. iii-iv.

C. There are two other men named James in the NT apostolic band. However,
James, the brother of John, was killed very early in A.D. 44 by Herod Agrippa I
(cf. Acts 12:1-2). The other James, “the less” or “the younger” (cf. Mark
15:40), is never mentioned outside the lists of apostles. The author of our
epistle was apparently well known.

D. There have been three theories as to the relationship of James to Jesus:

1. Jerome said that he was Jesus’ cousin (by Alphaeus and Mary of Clopas). He
deduced this from comparing Matt. 27:56 with John 19:25.

2. Roman Catholic tradition asserts that he was a half-brother by a previous
marriage of Joseph (cf. Origen’s comments on Matt. 13:55 and Epiphanius in
Heresies, 78).

3. Tertullian (A.D. 160-220), Helvidius (A.D. 366-384) and most Protestants
assert that he was a true half-brother of Jesus by Joseph and Mary (cf. Mark
6:3; I Cor. 9:5).

4. Options #1 and #2 were developed to guard the Roman Catholic doctrine of
the perpetual virginity of Mary.

III. DATE

A. If the above authorship is accepted, there are two possible dates:

1. Early, before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15) in A.D. 49 (if this date is
true then James is the earliest NT book to be circulated).

2. Later, just before the death of James in A.D. 62.

B. The early date has in its favor:

1. the use of “synagogue” in 2:2

2. the lack of church organization

3. the use of the word “elder” in its Jewish sense in 5:14

4. no mention of the controversy over the Gentile mission (cf. Acts 15)

5. James seems to be writing to early Jewish believing communities away from
Jerusalem and probably out of Palestine (cf. 1:1)

C. The late date has in its favor:

1. the possible reaction by James (cf. 2:14-20) to Paul’s letter to the
Romans (cf. 4:1ff), taking an opposite approach to correct an inappropriate
usage by the heretics (cf. II Pet. 3:15-16). If this is true, a good title for
James would be “a mid-course correction.”

2. The book apparently assumes basic Christian doctrines because of their
total absence from the book.

IV. RECIPIENTS

A. The reference to “the twelve tribes that are scattered over the world”
(1:1) is our major hint. Also, the inclusion of the letter in the “catholic
epistles” (i.e. letters addressed to several churches) reflects its encyclical
nature. Obviously one church is not as prominent as a specific though scattered
group of individuals and these seem to be Jewish Christians outside of
Palestine.

B. There are three possible interpretations of the phrase in 1:1:

1. Jews—This seems improbable because of the recurrent use of “brethren,” the
lack of the major gospel truths about Jesus, as well as the specific mentioning
of faith in Christ in 2:1. Also, after the Babylonian Exile, many of the
original twelve tribes never returned. The same metaphor is used symbolically of
believers in Rev. 7:4-8.

2. Christian Jews—This seems to be the most likely because of the Jewish
flavor of the book and the leadership position of James in the Jerusalem church.

3. The church as spiritual Israel—This is possible because of the use of
“diaspora” in I Pet. 1:1 and Paul’s allusion to the church (believing Jews and
Gentiles ) as spiritual Israel (cf. Rom. 2:28-29; 4:16ff; Gal. 3:29; 6:16; I
Pet. 2:5,9).

V. OCCASION – There are two major theories:

A. An attempt to apply the New Covenant specifically to first century Jewish
Christians living in pagan settings.

B. Some believe it was wealthy Jews persecuting Christian Jews. It is also
possible that the early Christians were subject to antisemitic pagan abuse. It
was obviously a time of physical need and persecution (cf. 1:2-4,12; 2:6-7;
5:4-11,13-14).

VI. LITERARY GENRE

A. This letter/sermon reflects a knowledge of wisdom literature, both
canonical (Job – Song of Songs) and inter-biblical (Ecclesiasticus about 180
B.C.). Its emphasis is practical living—faith in action (cf. 1:3-4).

B. In some ways the style is very similar to both Jewish wisdom teachers and
Greek and Roman moral itinerant teachers (like the Stoics). Some examples are:

1. loose structure (jumping from one subject to another)

2. many imperatives (54 of them)

3. diatribe (a supposed objector asking questions, cf. 2:18; 4:13). This is
also seen in Malachi, Romans, and I John.

C. Although there are few direct quotations from the OT (cf. 1:11; 2:8,11,23;
4:6), like the book of the Revelation, there are many allusions to the OT.

D. The outline of James is almost longer than the book itself. This reflects
the rabbinical technique of jumping from subject to subject in order to keep the
attention of the audience. The rabbis called it “pearls on a string.”

E. James seems to be a combination of OT literary genres: (1) sages (wisdom
teachers) and (2) prophets (much like Amos or Jeremiah). He uses OT truths but
bathes them in Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount teachings. (See section B. under
Content below).

VII. CONTENT

A. James uses allusions to Jesus’ words, found in the Synoptic Gospels, more
than any other NT book (i.e. 1:5,6,22; 2:5,8,13; 3:12,18; 4:10,12; 5:12). It is
even possible that James contains some quotes from Jesus (cf. 1:27; 2:13; 3:18;
4:11-12,17).

B. James is reminiscent of the Sermon on the Mount.

C. It is applied theology (faith without works is dead). Out of 108 verses,
54 are imperatives.

VIII. CANONIZATION

A. James’ inclusion was late and difficult.

1. James was not in the canonical list from Rome about A.D. 200 called
“Muratorian Fragment.”

2. It was not in the canonical list from North Africa, A.D. 360, called
“Cheltenham List” (also called Karl Mommsen’s catalog).

3. It was not included in the Old Latin version of the NT.

4. Eusebius lists it as one of the disputed books (Hebrews, James, II Peter,
II and III John, Jude, and Revelation),
Hist. Eccl. II:23:24-24; III:25:3.

5. It was not received in the Western Church until the 4^th century
and was not documented in the Eastern Church until the revision of the Syriac
translation of the 5^th century called the Peshitta.

6. It was rejected by Theodore of Mopsuetia (A.D. 392-428), the leader of the
Antiochean school of biblical interpretation (he rejected all of the catholic
epistles).

7. Erasmas had doubts about it, as did Martin Luther, who called it a “strawy
epistle” because he felt it contradicted Romans’ and Galatians’ emphases on
“justification by faith.”

B. Evidence of James’ genuineness:

1. It was alluded to in the writings of Clement of Rome (A.D. 95) and later
in the second century by Ignatius, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, and Irenaeus.

2. It is alluded to in the non-canonical, but popular, Christian writing
called Shepherd of Hermas, written about A.D. 130.

3. It is quoted directly by Origen (A.D. 185-245) in his commentary on John,
XIX:23.

4. In his Hist. Eccl. 2:23, Eusebius listed it among the “disputed
books,” but added that it was accepted by most churches.

5. It is included in the revision of the Syriac translation of A.D. 412
(called the Peshitta).

6. Origen and John of Damascus in the East and Jerome and Augustine in the
West championed this book’s inclusion in the Canon. It received official
canonical status at the Councils of Hippo, A.D. 393, and Carthage, A.D. 397 and
again in A.D. 419.

7. It was accepted by Chrysostom (A.D. 345-407) and Theodoret (A.D. 393-457),
both leaders of the Antiochean school of biblical interpretation.

IX. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “the twelve tribes,” 1:1

2. dispersed, 1:1

3. “consider it,” 1:2

4. approved, 1:12

5. crown of life, 1:12

6. “no variation of shifting of shadow,” 1:17

7. “doers of the word,” 1:22

8. the perfect law, 1:25

9. “demons also believe,” 2:19

10. “stricter judgment,” 3:1

11. hell, 3:6

12. “swear by heaven or by earth,” 5:12

13. anointing, 5:14

14. “confess your sins to one another,” 5:16

X. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “double-minded man,” 1:8

2. “the Father of lights,” 1:17

3. Rahab, 2:25

4. “the Lord of Sabaoth,” 5:4

5. Job, 5:11

6. the elders, 5:14

7. Elijah, 5:17

XI. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT — NONE

XII. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. How can 1:2 be true?

2. How is prayer limited? (1:5-8; 4:1-5)

3. How does 1:9-11 reverse the cultural role expectations?

4. How does 1:13 compare to Matt. 6:13?

5. How is 1:22 the theme of the book?

6. Is 2:1-7 talking about a worship setting or a church court setting? Why?

7. To what event in the Christian life is 2:7 referring?

8. Why is 2:10 an important truth?

9. Why does 2:17 caused so much conflict in the church? (cf. 2:20)

10. How do Paul and James use Abraham as an example, but in different ways?
(2:18-26)

11. Explain the point of 3:1-5 in your own words.

12. Describe the difference between worldly wisdom and God’s wisdom.
(3:15-17)

13. Why is 4:5 so hard to interpret?

14. Why would 5:1-6 have surprised Jewish believers?

INTRODUCTION TO I PETER

I. AUTHORSHIP

A. Internal evidence for the Apostle Peter’s authorship

1. specifically stated in 1:1

2. allusions to the words and life experiences of Jesus and the Twelve

a. examples taken from E. G. Selwyn’s The First Epistle of St. Peter,
1946

(1) 1:3 – John 21:27

(2) 1:7-9 – Luke 22:31; Mark 8:29

(3) 1:10-12 – Luke 24:25ff; Acts 15:14ff

(4) 3:15 – Mark 14:29,71

(5) 5:2 – John 21:15ff

b. examples taken from Alan Stibbbs’ The First Epistle General of Peter,
1971

(1) 1:16 – Matt. 5:48

(2) 1:17 – Matt. 22:16

(3) 1:18 – Mark 10:45

(4) 1:22 – John 15:12

(5) 2:4 – Matt. 21:42ff

(6) 2:19 – Luke 6:32; Matt. 5:39

(7) 3:9 – Matt. 5:39

(8) 3:14 – Matt. 5:10

(9) 3:16 – Matt. 5:44; Luke 6:28

(10) 3:20 – Matt. 24:37-38

(11) 4:11 – Matt. 5:16

(12) 4:13 – Matt. 5:10ff

(13) 4:18 – Matt. 24:22

(14) 5:3 – Matt. 20:25

(15) 5:7 – Matt. 6:25ff

3. words and phrases similar to Peter’s sermons in Acts

a. 1:20 – Acts 2:23

b. 2:7-8 – Acts 4:10-11

c. 2:24 – Acts 5:30; 10:39 (esp. use of the Greek term
xylon for cross)

d. 4:5 – Acts 10:45

4. contemporary first century missionary comparisons

a. Silvanus (Silas) – 5:12

b. Mark (John Mark) – 5:13

B. External evidence for the Apostle Peter’s authorship

1. accepted early and widely by the early church

a. similar phrasing, possibly quotes, by Clement of Rome in his Letter to
Corinthians (A.D. 95)

b. similar phrasing, possibly quotes, in the Epistle of Barnabas (A.D.
130)

c. alluded to by Papias, the Bishop of Hieropolis (A.D. 140) in a quote from
Eusebius’ His. Eccl.

d. quoted by Polycarp in his Epistle to the Philippians
8:1, but he does not mention I Peter by name (Polycarp died in A.D. 155)

e. quoted by Irenaeus (A.D. 140-203)

f. quoted by Origen (A.D. 185-253). Origen believed that I Pet. 5:13, where
Peter calls Mark “my son” means he wrote Peter’s Gospel.

g. quoted by Tertullian (A.D. 150-222)

C. Reasons for questioning the Apostle Peter’s authorship

1. it is not listed in the Muratorian Fragment, a list of canonical books
compiled in Rome between A.D. 180 and 200

2. the Greek is good, polished Koine Greek, which is surprising from an
“uneducated”

(a grammatos, cf. Acts 4:13) Galilean fisherman

3. it sounds so much like Paul’s writings in Romans and Ephesians

4. its description of persecution described in I Peter better fits a later
date

a. Domitian (A.D. 81-96)

b. Trajan (A.D. 98-117)

D. Possible answers to modern scholarship concerns

1. The Muratorian Fragment is damaged and missing at least one line of text
(cf. B. F. Westcott’s A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New
Testament, 6^th ed. p. 289).

2. Peter was not uneducated (cf. Acts 4:13), but merely untrained in a
recognized rabbinical school. Apparently most Jews in Galilee were bilingual
from birth. The other major issue in this discussion is Peter’s use of a scribe.
The wording of I Pet. 5:12 suggests he may have used Silvanus (Silas).

3. Both Peter and Paul often quoted liturgical or training material
(catechism documents) common in the early church. They also had some contact
with each other through the years (i.e., Acts, Gal. and II Pet. 3:15-16).

For me the most probable reason for the similarity between Peter and Paul’s
writing can be explained by Peter’s use of Paul’s missionary companion Silas
(Silvanus) as a scribe.

4. I Peter does not necessarily reflect an Empire-wide persecution. Peter’s
affirmation of believers needing to be subject to government (cf. 2:13-17) would
be unusual in a day of official Empire-wide persecution.

Nero’s (A.D. 54-68) growing mental illness (e.g. grandiose claims) encouraged
local emperor cults, especially in Asia Minor, to instigate local persecutions.
I Peter fits Nero’s day better than Domitian’s (A.D. 81-96) or Trajan’s day
(A.D. 98-117). It is even possible that some of the persecution is coming from
Jewish groups as well as local governmental officials or emperor cults.

E. There is nothing in I Peter itself which demands a later period or author.

II. DATE

A. The date is obviously related to authorship.

B. Tradition links Peter’s and Paul’s deaths in Rome under Nero, probably
A.D. 65. If so, then I Peter had to have been written about A.D. 63-64.

C. A mid-first century date is probable if I Peter is alluded to by Clement
of Rome (A.D. 95).

D. A. T. Robertson believes Peter died in A.D. 67-68 and wrote I Peter in
A.D. 65-66. I think he died in A.D. 64-65 and wrote just before this.

III. RECIPIENTS

A. Typical of first century letters, the recipients are noted in 1:1 as
“those who reside as aliens scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia,
Asia, and Bithynia.” These Roman provinces (assuming Galatia is northern ethnic
Galatia) are located in northern modern Turkey. These areas are apparently
places that Paul did not evangelize (cf. Acts 16:6) nor did Peter (cf. 1:12).
Possibly these churches originated from Jewish converts who returned home after
Pentecost (cf. Acts 2:9-11).

B. Although these churches may have originally been started by Jewish
believers at the time of Peter’s writing, they were mostly Gentile

1. formerly ignorant of God (1:14)

2. futile ways of life inherited from their forefathers (1:18)

3. now God’s people (2:9-10, a play on Hosea 1:9-10; 2:23)

4. among the Gentiles (2:12)

5. lists of Gentile vices (4:3-4)

C. The book does contain Jewish elements

1. the use of the terms “aliens” and “diaspora” reflect a Jewish setting (cf.
John 7:35; Acts 7:6)

2. the use of OT Scriptures

a. Exodus 19 (cf. 2:5,9)

b. Isaiah 53 (cf. 1:19; 2:22,24,25)

However, these examples do not necessarily reflect a Jewish church, but

3. the transfer of OT titles from Israel to the church (i.e., “a kingdom of
priests”)

a. 2:5

b. 2:9

4. a church training document (i.e., catechism materials for new believers),
which employed OT Messianic texts

a. 1:19 – Isaiah 53:7 (i.e., Lamb)

b. 2:22 – Isaiah 53:5

c. 2:24 – Isaiah 53:4,5,11,12

d. 2:25 – Isaiah 53:6

D. Although Peter was called specifically to minister to Jews (cf. Gal. 2:8),
he, like Paul, worked with both Jews and Gentiles (cf. Acts 10). Cornelius’
conversion showed Peter the radical inclusiveness of the gospel! I Peter
reflects this new realization.

IV. PURPOSE

A. I Peter has both a doctrinal and practical aspect. However, as Paul
divided his letters into a beginning section on doctrine and a concluding
section on application, Peter merges the two. His book is much more difficult to
outline. In many ways it reflects a sermon more than a letter.

B. The major issue discussed is suffering and persecution. This is done in
two ways.

1. Jesus is presented as the ultimate example of suffering and rejection (cf.
1:11; 2:21,23; 3:18; 4:1,13; 5:1).

2. Jesus’ followers are called on to emulate His pattern and attitude (cf.
1:6-7; 2:19; 3:13-17; 4:1,12-19; 5:9-10).

C. In light of the suffering and persecutions so common in the early years of
Christianity, it is not surprising how often the Second Coming is mentioned.
This book, like most NT writings, is thoroughly eschatological.

V. GENRE

A. This book has a typical first century Greco-Roman opening and close

1. 1:1-2

a. author

b. recipients

c. prayer

2. 5:12-14

a. closing greetings

(1) from whom

(2) to whom

b. prayer

B. The main body of the letter resembles a sermon more than a letter. Some
have assumed it was

1. first a sermon

2. first a baptismal liturgy

3. first pieces of early church catechism material combined

C. The letter seems to close at 4:11 with a doxology, but no Greek manuscript
stops at this point. It is possible that 4:12-5:11 is a purposeful summary of
the entire letter.

D. I personally believe that I Peter functions as a cyclical letter to
churches which Peter did not personally start, much like Paul’s Colossians (sent
to Colossae, Laodicea, and Hierapolis, cf. Col. 4:13), but also a general
encouragement to believers to watch out for coming problems, much like Paul’s
Galatian and Ephesian letters.

This cyclical genre explains the lack of a personal opening and closing to
the letter. It also explains the lack of specific examples of persecution.

VI. CANONIZATION

A. I include the category of canonization in I Peter because the issue is so
controversial with II Peter.

B. I Peter is listed in Eusebius’ Eccl. His. 3:3:25, as being part of
“the undisputed books.” In the ancient church it was never doubted as a true
letter from the Apostle Peter.

C. The issue of canonicity is exacerbated because of the number of spurious
writings attributed to Peter. The early church never accepted any of these,
recognizing only I Peter and the disputed II Peter as truly from the Apostle.

1. Acts of Peter

2. Acts of Peter and Andrew

3. Acts of Peter and Paul

4. The Passion of Peter and Paul

5. The Acts of Peter and the Twelve

6. Apocalypse of Peter

7. Gospel of Peter

8. Passion of Peter

9. Preaching of Peter

10. Slavonic Acts of Peter

(For a discussion of each of these pseudonymous writings see the Zondervan
Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible Vol. 4; pp. 721-723, 732-733, 740.) None
of these writings supposedly attributed to Peter were even seriously considered
to be part of the canon of the NT. This, in and of itself, says much about the
inclusion of I and II Peter.

PETER, THE MAN

I. HIS FAMILY

A. Peter’s family lived in Galilee of the Gentiles in the city of Bethsaida
on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee (or the Sea of Tiberias cf. John
1:44), but apparently moved to Capernaum at some point (cf. Mark 1:21,29).

B. Peter’s father’s name was Jonah (cf. Matt. 16:17) or John (cf. John 1:42;
21:15-17).

C. His given name was Simon (cf. Mark 1:16,29,30,36), which was common in
Palestine of the first century. It was the Jewish form of Symeon (cf. Acts
15:14; II Pet. 1:1), which was the name of one of the Twelve Tribes of Israel
(cf. Gen. 29:33; Exod. 1:1).

Jesus renamed him Peter (Petros, which means “rock,” meant to describe
his eventual strength and stability) in Matt. 16:18; Mark 3:16; Luke 6:14; and
John 1:42. The Aramaic form is
Cephas (cf. John 1:42; I Cor. 1:12; 3:22; 9:5; 15:5; Gal. 1:18;
2:9,11,14). Often in the NT these two names are given together (cf. Matt. 16:16;
Luke 5:8; John 1:40; 6:8,68; 13:6,9,24,36; 18:10,15,25; 20:2,6; 21:2-3,7,11,15).

D. Peter’s brother’s name was Andrew (cf. Mark 1:16). He was a disciple of
John the Baptist (cf. John 1:35,40) and later a believer and follower of Jesus
(cf. John 1:36-37). He brought Simon to Jesus (cf. John 1:41). Several months
later Jesus confronted them by the Sea of Galilee and called them to be His
official full-time disciples (cf. Matt. 4:18-20; Mark 1:16-18; and Luke 5:1-11).

E. He was married (cf. Mark 1:30; I Cor. 9:5), but there is no mention of
children.

II. HIS OCCUPATION

A. Peter’s family owned several fishing boats and even hired servants.

B. Peter’s family may have been partners with James, John, and their father,
Zebedee (cf. Luke 5:10).

C. Peter briefly returned to fishing after Jesus’ death (cf. John 21).

III. HIS PERSONALITY

A. Peter’s strengths

1. He was a dedicated follower, but quite impulsive (cf. Mark 9:5; John
13:4-11).

2. He attempted acts of faith, but often failed (e.g. walking on water, cf.
Matt. 14:28-31).

3. He was brave and willing to die (cf. Matt. 26:51-52; Mark 14:47; Luke
22:49-51; John 18:10-11).

4. After His resurrection, Jesus addressed him personally as the discredited
leader of the Twelve in John 21 and provided an opportunity for repentance and
restoration to leadership.

B. Peter’s weaknesses

1. He had initial tendencies toward Jewish legalism

a. eating with Gentiles (Gal. 2:11-21)

b. food laws (Acts 10:9-16)

2. He, like all the Apostles, did not fully understand Jesus’ radical new
teachings and their implications

a. Mark 9:5-6

b. John 13:6-11; 18:10-11

3. He was personally and severely chastised by Jesus (Mark 8:33; Matt. 16:23)

4. He was found sleeping instead of praying in Jesus’ great hour of need in
Gethsemane (Mark. 14:32-42; Matt. 26:36-46; Luke 22:40-60)

5. He repeatedly denied knowing Jesus (Mark 14:66-72; Matt. 26:69-75; Luke
22:56-62; John 18:16-18,25-27)

IV. HIS LEADERSHIP OF THE APOSTOLIC GROUP

A. There are four lists of the Apostles (cf. Matt. 10:2-4; Mark 3:16-19; Luke
6:14-16; Acts 1:13). Peter is always listed first. The Twelve were divided into
three groups of four. I believe this allowed them to rotate home to check on
their families.

B. Peter often serves as the spokesman for the Apostolic group (cf. Matt.
16:13-20; Mark 8:27-30; Luke 9:18-21). These passages have also been used to
assert Peter’s authority within the group (cf. Matt. 16:18). However, within
this very context he is chided by Jesus as a tool of Satan (cf. Matt. 16:23;
Mark 8:33).

Also, when the disciples are arguing over who is greatest, Peter is not
assumed to take that position (cf. Matt. 20:20-28, especially v. 24; Mark
9:33-37; 10:35-45).

C. Peter was not the leader of the Jerusalem church. This fell to James,
Jesus’ half-brother (cf. Acts 12:17; 15:13; 21:18; I Cor. 15:7; Gal. 1:19;
2:9,12).

V. HIS MINISTRY AFTER JESUS’ RESURRECTION

A. Peter’s leadership role is clearly seen in the early chapters of Acts

1. He led in the election of Judas’ replacement (cf. Acts 1:15-26).

2. He preached the first sermon on Pentecost (cf. Acts 2).

3. He healed a lame man and preached the second recorded sermon (cf. Acts
3:1-10; 3:11-26).

4. He spoke boldly to the Sanhedrin in Acts 4.

5. He presided over the church discipline of Ananias and Sapphira in Acts 5.

6. He spoke at the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15:7-11.

7. Several other events and miracles are attributed to him in Acts.

B. Peter, however, did not always embody the gospel’s implications

1. He retained an OT mind-set (cf. Gal. 2:11-14).

2. He had to have a special revelation to include Cornelius (cf. Acts 10) and
other Gentiles.

VI. THE SILENT YEARS

A. There is little or no information about Peter after the Jerusalem Council
of Acts 15

1. Galatians 1:18

2. Galatians 2:7-21

3. I Corinthians 1:12; 3:22; 9:5; 15:5

B. Early church tradition

1. Peter’s being martyred in Rome is mentioned in Clement of Rome’s letter to
the church at Corinth in A.D. 95.

2. Tertullian (A.D. 150-222) also notes Peter’s martyrdom in Rome under Nero
(A.D. 54-68).

3. Clement of Alexandria (A.D. 200) says Peter was killed in Rome.

4. Origen (A.D. 252) says Peter was martyred by crucifixion, head down, in
Rome.

VII. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. foreknowledge, 1:2

2. “sprinkled with His blood,” 1:2

3. “born again,” 1:3

4. various trials, 1:6

5. “the proof of your faith,” 1:7

6. “the revelation of Jesus Christ,” 1:7,13

7. souls, 1:9

8. “a lamb unblemished and spotless,” 1:19

9. “He was foreknown before the foundation of the world,” 1:20

10. “the living and enduring word of God,” 1:23

11. “the pure milk of the word,” 2:2

12. “a living stone,” 2:4

13. “a holy priesthood,” 2:5

14. a cornerstone, 2:6

15. “a stone of stumbling,” 2:8

16. submit, 2:13

17. “die to sin and live to righteousness,” 2:24

18. “by His wounds you were healed,” 2:24

19. kindhearted, 3:8

20. a defense, 3:15

21. “baptism now saves you,” 3:21

22. testing, 4:12

23. “resist him,” 5:9

VIII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “the Holy One,” 1:15

2. “the Shepherd and Guardian of your souls,” 2:25

3. the elders, 5:1

4. the Chief Shepherd, 5:4

5. Silvanus, 5:12

6. Mark, 5:13

IX. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Pontus, 1:1

2. Galatia, 1:1

3. Cappadocia, 1:1

4. Asia, 1:1

5. Bithynia, 1:1

6. Zion, 2:6

7. Babylon, 5:13

X. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Describe the believers’ inheritance. (1:4-5)

2. Explain 1:11 in your own words.

3. What is it that angels want to know? (1:12)

4. How are Christians to obey 1:16?

5. How does one grow in respect to salvation? (2:2)

6. Why is 2:5 and 9 important?

7. How does 2:16 relate to Romans 14?

8. How does 3:3 relate to today?

9. Can our relationship with our spouse affect our prayers? (3:7)

10. Where did James go to preach to the spirits in prison? (3:19)

11. Explain 3:22 in light of gnostic theology.

12. What is the general theme of I Peter?

INTRODUCTION TO II PETER

I. OPENING STATEMENTS

A. The purpose or scope of this introduction is not to discuss in detail the
problems connected to the authorship of II Peter. I personally have concluded
that there is no compelling reason to deny Peter’s authorship. Three sources
have been helpful in thinking through this issue.

1. Bruce M. Metzger’s article “Literary Forgeries and Canonical
Pseudepigrapha” in The Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature,
1972, pp. 3-24.

2. Michael J. Kruger’s article “The Authenticity of 2 Peter” in The
Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society,
Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 645-671.

3. E. M. B. Green’s book 2 Peter Reconsidered, Tyndale Press, 1961.

B. As I think about the possibility that II Peter was not written by Peter,
many things go through my mind.

1. Who wrote II Peter does not change my view that it is inspired and
trustworthy. Authorship affects hermeneutics, not inspiration, which is a faith
presupposition and a documentable historical process.

2. Why am I bothered by pseudonymity? Apparently the first century
Greco-Roman world was accustomed to it (Metzger’s article).

3. Am I unwilling to allow it because of my own preferences or am I able to
honestly evaluate the historical and textual evidence? Has tradition predisposed
me to a certain conclusion?

4. The ancient church questioned Peter’s authorship, but not the book’s
message (except the Syrian church). It is an orthodox message in theological
unity with other NT books with many affinities to Peter’s sermons in Acts.

C. Eusebius used three categories to describe Christian writings:

1. accepted

2. disputed

3. spurious

He included II Peter along with James, Jude, II John, and III John in
category 2 (i.e. disputed). Eusebius accepted I Peter; had doubts about II
Peter, and rejected as spurious other supposed writings of Peter (1) the Acts of
Peter; (2) the Gospel of Peter; (3) the Preaching of Peter; and (4) the
Apocalypse of Peter.

II. AUTHORSHIP

A. This is the most disputed NT book as to traditional authorship.

B. The reasons for these doubts are both internal (its style and content) and
external (its late acceptance).

1. External

a. not listed by Marcion (A.D. 145) or Muratorial Fragment (A.D. 170).

b. is found in Bodamer Papyri P⁷² of the early third century

c. not quoted directly by Early Church writers until third century (Origen
and Methodius)

d. not accepted into the Canon officially until Council of Carthage A.D. 397,
apparently following Athanasius’ letter of A.D. 367. It was rejected in the
Eastern Church until the sixth century

e. not in the Syriac (Peshita) translation of the fifth century

f. Eusebius, writing in A.D. 325 (Ecclesiastical History 3:25:3)
places it among the disputed books (II Peter, Jude, James, II John, and III
John)

2. Internal

a. style very different from I Peter (I Peter is syntactical Greek, while II
Peter is not; Jerome attributed this difference to separate scribes)

b. II Peter seems to follow a literary type known as “Asianism,” which was
characteristic of some Asia Minor literature

c. the allusion to extra-canonical sources has caused great problems, but I
Peter seems to make an allusion to I Enoch

d. II Peter and Jude have some literary linkage (II Pet. 2:1-18 and Jude 4-13
and II Pet. 3:1-3 and Jude 17-18); who copied whom is uncertain

e. the book claims to be written by the Apostle Peter; 1:1,14,16-18; 3:1,15

C. Genre

1. Is this a typical first century letter?

a. it has a typical opening and close

b. it, however, seems to be a cyclical letter to several churches, like
Galatians, Ephesians, James, and I John

c. It may be a specialized Jewish genre called “testament,” which is
characterized by

(1) a farewell discourse

(a) Deuteronomy 31-33

(b) Joshua 24

(c) the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs

(d) John 13-17

(e) Acts 20:17-28

(2) a prediction of imminent death (cf. II Timothy)

(3) an admonition of his hearers to keep on in his tradition

2. The relation between II Peter 2 and Jude

a. There has obviously been some literary borrowing.

b. The allusion to non-canonical sources has caused many to reject both Jude
and II Peter, yet even I Peter makes allusion to I Enoch and Paul even quotes
Greek poets.

3. The book itself claims to be from Peter the Apostle

a. He is named in 1:1. He is called Symeon Peter. Peter is the name given to
him by Jesus (cf. Matt. 16). Symeon (not Simon) is rare and unusual. If someone
were trying to write in Peter’s name the choice of this Semitic spelling is very
surprising and counterproductive to pseudonymity.

b. He claims to be an eye-witness to the transfiguration (cf. Matt. 17:1-8;
Mark 9:2-8; Luke 9:28-36) in 1:16-18.

c. He claims to have written a first letter (cf. 3:1), which implies I Peter.

4. Orthodoxy

a. There is nothing in this letter which contradicts NT Apostolic teaching.

b. There are a few unique items (i.e. world destroyed by fire and Paul’s
writings seen as Scripture), but nothing gnostic or adoptionistic or obviously
heretical.

EXTERNAL CONCERNS

1. Eusebius lists Christian writings of the first and second centuries in
three categories

a. accepted

b. disputed

c. spurious

II Peter, along with Hebrews, James, II and III John are listed in the
disputed category.

2. II Peter does not appear in the Marcion canon (A.D. 154), but Marcion also
rejected many other NT books.

3. II Peter does not appear in the Muratorian Fragment (A.D. 180-200), but
the list seems to be damaged and it also does not list Hebrews, James, or I
Peter.

4. It was rejected by the Eastern (Syrian) church

a. not in the Peshitta (first half of the fifth century)

b. was included in the Philoxeniana (A.D. 507) from Iraq and the Harclean
version (A.D. 616) from north Africa

c. Chrysostom and Theodore of Mopsuestia (i.e. leaders of the Antiochian
school of interpretation) rejected all the catholic epistles.

5. II Peter seems to be quoted in “the Gospel of Truth” and “the Apocryphon
of John” found in the Nag Hammadi gnostic texts (cf. The Nag Hammati Gnostic
Texts and the Bible by Andrew K. Helmbold, p. 91). These writings in Coptic
are translations of earlier Greek texts. If II Peter is alluded to then it is
impossible for it to have been written in the second century.

6. It is included in P⁷², dated by the UBS⁴ (p. 8) as
third or fourth century.

7. It is alluded to or quoted by Clement of Rome (A.D. 95)

a. I Clement (9:2 – II Peter 1:17)

b. I Clement (23:3 – II Peter 3:4)

c. I Clement (35:5 – II Peter 2:2)

8. It may be alluded to in Justin Martyr’s (A.D. 115-165)
Dialogue with Trypho 82:1 – II Pet. 2:1. These are the only two places in
ancient Christian writings where the Greek term pseudoppophetai is used.

9. Irenaeus (A.D. 130-200) possibly alludes to II Peter (he is quoted by
Eusebius’ His. Eccl. 5:32:2 – II Pet. 3:8 and 3:1:1 – II Pet. 1:15).

10. Clement of Alexandria (A.D. 150-215) wrote the first commentary (though
it is now lost) on II Peter.

11. It appears in Athanasius’ Easter letter (A.D. 367), which was a current
list of canonical books.

12. It was accepted as canonical by the early church councils of Laodicea
(A.D. 372) and Carthage (A.D. 397).

13. It is interesting that other supposed writings of Peter (i.e. the Acts of
Peter, the Acts of Andrew and Peter, the Acts of Peter and Paul, Passion of
Peter and Paul, the Acts of Peter and the Twelve Apostles, the Apocalypse of
Peter, and the Preaching of Peter) were all rejected by the early churches as
spurious (i.e. non-inspired).

III. DATE

A. This depends on authorship.

B. If one is convinced of Peter’s authorship then sometime before his death
(cf. 1:14).

C. Church tradition asserts that the Apostle Peter died in Rome while Nero
was Caesar. Nero instituted persecution towards Christians in A.D. 64. He killed
himself in A.D. 68.

D. If a follower of Peter wrote in his name, then a date as late as A.D.
130-150 is probable because II Peter is quoted in the Apocalypse of Peter
as well as The Gospel of Truth and Apocryphon of John.

E. The renowned American archaeologist W. F. Albright asserts that it was
written before a.d. 80 because of its similarities to the
Dead Sea Scrolls.

IV. RECIPIENTS

A. If I Peter is referred to in II Peter 3:1 then the recipients would be the
same (i.e. northern Turkey).

B. II Peter may be a testimonial to encourage all believers to persevere
under trial, resist false teachers, and live faithfully in the gospel tradition
in anticipation of the Second Coming.

V. EMPHASIS

A. To combat heresy, probably incipient antinomian gnosticism (2:1-22;
3:15-18)

B. To discuss the delayed second coming of Christ (3:3-4). At this time the
False teachers and other sinners will be judged and God’s children will be
glorified.

VI. OCCASION

A. As I Peter addresses persecution and suffering, II Peter addresses false
teachers.

B. The exact nature of the false teaching is uncertain, but it may be related
to antinomian gnosticism (cf. 2:1-22; 3:15-18). This book uses technical
vocabulary employed by both incipient gnosticism and the mystery religions. This
may have been a purposeful apologetic technique attacking their theology.

C. This book, like II Thessalonians, addresses the subject of a delayed, but
certain, Second Coming, wherein God’s children will be glorified and unbelievers
judged (cf. 3:3-4). It is interesting that I Peter characteristically uses the
term
apocalupsis to refer to Jesus’ return, while II Peter uses
parousia. This possibly reflects the use of different scribes (i.e.
Jerome).

VII. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. bond-servant, 1:1

2. divine power, 1:3

3. godliness, 1:3

4. “partakers of the divine nature,” 1:4

5. “the eternal kingdom,” 1:11

6. “the laying aside of my earthly dwelling is imminent,” 1:14

7. “coming of our Lord Jesus Christ,” 1:16

8. “we were eyewitness of His majesty,” 1:16

9. “My Beloved Son,” 1:17

10. “the morning star arises,” 1:19

11. false prophets, 2:1

12. false teachers, 2:1

13. “angels when they sinned,” 2:4

14. hell (i.e. Tartarus), 2:4

15. “despise authority,” 2:10

16. “revile angelic majesties,” 2:10

17. “the holy commandment,” 2:21

18. “hastening the coming of the Lord,” 3:12

19. “new heavens and a new earth,” 3:13

20. “spotless and blameless,” 3:140

VIII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. Noah, 2:5

2. Lot, 2:7

3. Balaam, 2:15

IX. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT — NONE

X. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Is 1:1 calling Jesus God?

2. How does 1:10 relate to God’s sovereignty and human free will?

3. When did Jesus tell Peter about His death? (1:14)

4. List the ways that chapter 1 reflects Peter’s days with Jesus.

5. What great truth does 1:20-21 affirm?

6. List the characteristics of the false leaders in chapter 2.

7. Why is 2:1, “denying the Master who bought them,” so distressing?

8. Why is 2:8 surprising? (2:20)

9. Explain 2:20 in your own words.

10. What exactly are the false teachers asserting in 3:4?

11. Why is the earth said to be formed out of water? (3:5)

12. What is the implication of 3:8?

13. How is 3:9b related to I Tim. 2:4?

14. Where else in the Bible is the truth of 3:10 given?

15. Why is Peter’s mention of Paul so important?

16. What is the central theme of II Peter?

INTRODUCTION TO I JOHN

I. UNIQUENESS OF THE BOOK

A. The book of I John is not a personal letter nor a letter written
to one church as much as it is an “Impassioned Office Memo from Headquarters”
(corporate letter).

1. It has no traditional introduction (from whom, to whom).

2. It has no personal greetings or closing message.

B. There is no mention made of personal names. This is highly unusual except
in books written to many church, such as Ephesians and James. The only NT letter
which does not include the name of the author is Hebrews. However, it is obvious
that it was written to believers presently facing an internal church problem of
false teachers.

C. This letter is a powerful theological treatise

1. The centrality of Jesus

a. fully God and fully man

b. salvation comes by faith in Jesus Christ, not a mystical experience or
secret knowledge (false teachers)

2. The demand for a Christian lifestyle (three tests of genuine Christianity)

a. brotherly love

b. obedience

c. rejection of the fallen world system

3. The assurance of eternal salvation through faith in Jesus of Nazareth
(“know” used 27 times)

4. How to recognize false teachers

D. John’s writings (especially I John) are the least complicated Koine Greek
of any NT writer, yet his books, as no other, plumb the depths of the profound
and eternal truths of God in Jesus Christ (i.e. God is Light, 1:5; God is Love,
4:8,16; God is spirit, John 4:24).

E. It is possible that I John was meant to be a cover letter for the Gospel
of John. The gnostic heresy of the first century forms the background for both
books. The Gospel has an evangelistic thrust, while I John is written for
believers.

The renowned commentator Westcott asserted that the Gospel affirms the deity
of Jesus, while I John affirms His humanity. These books go together!

F. John writes in black and white (dualistic) terms. This is characteristic
of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the gnostic false teachers. I John’s structured
literary dualism is both verbal (light versus dark) and stylistic (a negative
statement followed by a positive one). This is different from the Gospel of
John, which employs a vertical dualism (from above versus from below).

G. It is very difficult to outline I John because of John’s recurrent use of
themes. The book is like a tapestry of truths woven together in repeated
patterns (cf. Bill Hendricks,
Tapestries of Truth, The Letters of John).

II. AUTHOR

A. The authorship of I John is part of the debate over the authorship of the
Johannine Corpus — the Gospel, I John, II John, III John and Revelation.

B. There are two basic positions

1. Traditional

a. Tradition was unanimous among the early Church fathers that John, the
beloved Apostle, was the author of I John

b. Summary of early church evidence

(1) Clement of Rome (A.D. 90) makes allusions to I John

(2) Polycarp of Smyrna, Philippians 7 (A.D.. 110-140) quotes I John

(3) Justin Martyr’s, Dialogue 123:9 (A.D. 150-160) quotes I John

(4) Allusions to I John are made in the writings of

(a) Ignatius of Antioch (date of his writings are uncertain but in early A.D.
100’s)

(b) Papias of Hierapolis (born between A.D. 50-60 and martyred about
A.D. 155)

(5) Irenaeus of Lyons (A.D. 130-202) attributes I John to the Apostle John.
Tertullian, an early apologist who wrote 50 books against heretics, often quoted
I John

(6) Other early writings which attribute authorship to John the Apostle are
Clement, Origen and Dionysius all three of Alexandria, the Muratorian Fragment
(A.D. 180-200) and Eusebius (third century).

(7) Jerome (second half of fourth century) affirmed John’s authorship but
admitted that it was denied by some in his day.

(8) Theodore of Mopsuestia, Bishop of Antioch from A.D. 392-428, denied
John’s authorship.

c. If John, what we do know about John the Apostle?

(1) He was the son of Zebedee and Salome

(2) He was a fisherman on the Sea of Galilee with his brother, James
(possibly owned several boats)

(3) Some believe his mother was a sister of Mary, the mother of Jesus (cf.
John 19:25; Mark 15:20)

(4) Apparently he was wealthy because he had:

(a) hired servants (cf. Mark 1:20)

(b) several boats

(c) a home in Jerusalem (cf. Matt. 20:20)

(5) John had access to the High Priest’s home in Jerusalem, which shows he
was a person of some renown (cf. John 18:15-16)

(6) It was John in whose care Mary, the mother of Jesus, was committed

d. Early Church tradition unanimously testified that John outlived all of the
other Apostles, and after the death of Mary in Jerusalem he moved to Asia Minor
and settled in Ephesus, the largest city in that area. From this city he was
exiled to the Island of Patmos (just off the coast) and was later released and
returned to Ephesus (Eusebius quotes Polycarp, Papias and Irenaeus).

2. Modern Scholarship

a. The vast majority of modern scholars recognize the similarity among all of
the Johannine writings, especially in phrasing, vocabulary, and grammatical
forms. A good example of this is the stark contrast which characterized these
writings: life versus death, truth versus falsehood. This same stark dichotomy
can be seen in other writings of the day; the Dead Sea Scrolls and incipient
gnostic writings.

b. There have been several theories about the inter-relationship between the
five books traditionally ascribed to John. Some groups assert authorship to one
person, two people, three people, and so on. It seems the most plausible
position is that all of the Johannine writings are the result of the thoughts of
one man, even if possibly penned by several of his disciples.

c. My personal belief is that John, the aged Apostle, wrote all five books
toward the end of his ministry in Ephesus.

3. The issue of authorship is an issue of hermeneutics, not inspiration.
Ultimately the author of Scripture is God!

III. DATE —Obviously this is linked to authorship

A. If John the Apostle wrote these letters, and especially I John, we are
talking about some time during the close of the first century. This would give
time for the development of the gnostic false theological/philosophical systems
and also would fit into the terminology of I John (“little children”), which
seems to imply an older man talking to a younger group of believers. Jerome says
John lived 68 years after Jesus’ crucifixion. This seems to fit with this
tradition.

B. A.T. Robertson thinks I John was written between A.D. 85-95, while the
Gospel was written by A.D. 95.

C. The New International Commentary Series on I John by I. Howard
Marshall asserts that a date between A.D. 60-100 is as close as modern
scholarship would like to come to estimating the date of the Johannine writings.

IV. RECIPIENTS

A. Tradition asserts that this book was written to the Roman Province of Asia
Minor (western Turkey), with Ephesus being its major metropolitan area.

B. The letter seems to have been sent to a specific group of churches in Asia
Minor which were experiencing a problem with false teachers (like Colossians and
Ephesians), specifically (1) docetic gnostics who denied the humanity of Christ,
but affirmed His deity and (2) antinomian gnostics who separated theology from
ethics/morality.

C. Augustine (fourth century A.D.) says it was written to the Parthians
(Babylon). He is followed by Cassiodrus (early sixth century A.D.). This
probably came from the confusion of the phrase “the elect lady”, and the phrase,
“she who is in Babylon,” which are used in I Peter 5:13 and II John 1.

D. The Muratorian Fragment, an early canonical list of NT books written
between A.D. 180-200 in Rome, asserts that this letter was written “after the
exhortation of his fellow disciples and bishops” (in Asia Minor).

V. THE HERESY

A. The letter itself is obviously a reaction against a type of false teaching
(cf. “If we say. . .” 1:6ff and “he who says . ..” 2:9; 4:20 [diatribe]).

B. We can learn some of the basic tenets of the heresy by internal evidence
from I John.

1. a denial of the incarnation of Jesus Christ

2. a denial of the centrality of Jesus Christ in salvation

3. a lack of an appropriate Christian lifestyle

4. an emphasis on knowledge (often secret)

5. a tendency toward exclusivism

C. The setting of the first century

The Roman world of the first century was a time of eclecticism between the
Eastern and Western religions. The gods of the Greek and Roman pantheons were in
ill repute. The Mystery religions were very popular because of their emphasis on
personal relationship with the deity and secret knowledge. Secular Greek
philosophy was popular and was merging with other world-views. Into this world
of eclectic religion came the exclusiveness of the Christian faith (Jesus is the
only way to God, cf. John 14:6). Whatever the exact background of the heresy, it
was an attempt to make the seeming narrowness of Christianity plausible and
intellectually acceptable to a wider Greek-Roman audience.

D. Possible options as to which group of gnostics John is addressing

1. Incipient gnosticism

a. The basic teachings of incipient gnosticism of the first century seem to
have been an emphasis on the ontological (eternal) dualism between spirit and
matter. Spirit (High God) was considered good, while matter was inherently evil.
This dichotomy resembles Platonism’s ideal versus physical, heavenly versus
earthly, invisible versus visible. There was also an overemphasis on the
importance of secret knowledge (passwords or secret codes which allow a soul to
pass through the angelic spheres [aeons] up to the high god) necessary
for salvation.

b. There are two forms of incipient gnosticism which apparently could be in
the background of I John

(1) Docetic gnosticism, which denies the true humanity of Jesus because
matter is evil

(2) Cerinthian gnosticism, which identifies the Christ with one of many
aeons or angelic levels between the good high god and evil matter. This
“Christ Spirit” indwelt the man Jesus at his baptism and left him before his
crucifixion.

(3) of these two groups some practiced asceticism (if the body wants it, it
is evil), the other antinomianism (if the body wants it, give it). There is no
written evidence of a developed system of gnosticism in the first century. It is
not until the middle of the second century that documented evidence existed. For
further information about “gnosticism” see

(a) The Gnostic Religion by Hans Jonas, published by Beacon Press

(b) The Gnostic Gospels by Elaine Pagels, published by Random House

(c) The Nag Hammadi Gnostic Texts and the Bible by Andrew Helmbold

2. Ignatius suggests another possible source of the heresy in his writings
to the Smyrnaeans iv-v. They denied the incarnation of Jesus and lived
antinomian lifestyles.

3. Yet another less likely possibility of the source of the heresy is Meander
of Antioch, who is known from the writings of Irenaeus, Against Heresies
XXIII. He was a follower of Simon the Samaritan and an advocate of secret
knowledge.

E. The Heresy Today

1. The spirit of this heresy is present with us today when people try to
combine Christian truth with other systems of thought.

2. The spirit of this heresy is present with us today when people emphasize
“correct” doctrine to the exclusion of personal relationship and lifestyle
faith.

3. The spirit of this heresy is present with us today when people turn
Christianity into an exclusive intellectual eliteness.

4. The spirit of this heresy is present with us today when people turn to
asceticism or antinomianism.

VI. PURPOSE

A. It has a practical focus for believers

1. to give them joy (cf. 1:4)

2. to encourage them to live godly lives (cf. 1:7; 2:1)

3. to command them (and remind them) to love one another (cf. 4:7-21) and not
the world (cf. 2:15-17).

4. to give them assurance of their salvation in Christ (cf. 5:13)

B. It has a doctrinal focus for believers

1. refute the error of separating Jesus’ deity and humanity

2. refute the error of separating spirituality into an intellectualism devoid
of godly living

3. refute the error that one can be saved in isolation from others

VII. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. from the beginning, 1:1

2. Word of life, 1:1

3. eternal life, 1:2

4. fellowship (koinōnia), 1:3

5. God is light, 1:5

6. walk, 1:6, 7

7. the blood of Jesus, 1:7

8. my little children, 2:1

9. propitiation, 2:2; 4:10

10. know, 2:3, 4, 18, 20, 21, etc.

11. abides, 2:6, 17, 24, 25, 27, etc.

12. new commandment, 2:7

13. for His name’s sake, 2:12

14. the world, 2:15

15. the last hour. 2:18

16. anointing, 2:20, 27

17. confess, 2:23; 4:2, 3, 15, etc.

18. test the spirits, 4:1

19. the day of judgment, 4:17

20. “the Spirit and the water and the blood,” 5:8

21. a sin leading to death, 5:16

22. born of God, 5:18

23. guard yourselves from idols, 5:21

VIII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. Advocate, 2:1

2. liar, 2:4, 22

3. antichrist, 2:18; 4:3

4. antichrists, 2:18

5. those who are trying to deceive you, 2:26

6. devil, 3:8, 10

7. Cain, 3:12

8. the evil one, 5:18

IX. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT – None

X. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Why does I John 1:1-4 use so many verbs reflecting the senses (i.e. heard,
seen, beheld, handled, seen, heard)?

2. Why would someone say they have no sin? (1:8)

3. Why is 1:9 such an important verse? To whom is it speaking?

4. How do you relate 1:10 with 3:6 and 9?

5. How does 2:2 relate to John 3:16?

6. Why is the word “know” used so often in I John? Define its Hebrew
connotation.

7. What does the recurrent phrase, “If we say. . .,” mean or imply?

8. Who are the false teachers John is confronting? Explain their beliefs
which are contrary to biblical Christianity!

9. To what doctrine does 3:2 relate?

10. Why are 3:6 and 9 so hard to interpret?

11. How does 4:8 relate to fighting Christians?

12. The concept of the Trinity appears in 4:13-14. Explain this in your own
words.

13. Explain 4:19 in your own words.

14. There are three tests in I John which assure believers that they are
Christians. List the three tests.

15. Why is 5:13 such an important verse?

16. Does 5:14-15 promise believers that their prayers will always be answered
positively?

17. What is a sin that leads to death? (5:16)

18. Does 5:18 promise believers that they will never be tried or tempted by
Satan? Why or why not?

19. What does the phrase, “the whole world lies in the power of the evil
one,” mean?

INTRODUCTION TO II and III JOHN

I. OPENING STATEMENTS

A. This little letter in only entitled III John because it is slightly
shorter than II John. I really think both II John and III John form a balanced
message to a local church, probably somewhere in the Roman Province of Asia
Minor, towards the end of the first century.

B. II John deals with the problem of heretical, itinerant preachers, while
III John deals with the admonition to help itinerant Christian preachers.

C. There are three different men specifically named in III John:

1. Gaius (a godly man in the recipient church)

a. There are three Gaius’s mentioned in other parts of the Bible: Gaius of
Macedonia, Acts 19:29; Gaius of Derbe, Acts 20:4; and Gaius of Corinth, Rom.
16:23; I Cor. 1:14.

b.The writings known as “Apostolic Constitutions” list the Gaius of III John
as the Bishop of Pergamum, appointed by John.

2. Diotrephes (a godless trouble-maker in the recipient church)

a. This is the only mention of this man in the NT. His name is a very rare
name which means “nursed of Zeus.” How ironic it is that man named after “Zeus”
would be against travelers when “Zeus” was the “protector of travelers.”

b. His attitude is exposed in verses 9-10.

3. Demetrius (the bearer of John’s letter to this local church)

a. Apparently he is one of the traveling missionaries and the bearer of the
letter from the Apostle in Ephesus.

b. The tradition called “The Apostolic Constitutions” lists Demetrius as the
Bishop of Philadelphia, who was appointed by the Apostle John.

D. The early church struggled with how to evaluate and support traveling
preachers, teachers, and evangelists. One early non-canonical Christian writing
from the early second century called The Didache or The Teaching of
the Twelve Apostles has these guidelines:

CHAPTER XI—CONCERNING TEACHERS, APOSTLES, AND PROPHETS

“Whosoever, therefore, cometh and teacheth you all these things that have
been said before, receive him. But if the teacher himself turn and teach another
doctrine to the destruction of this, hear him not; but if he teach so as
to increase righteousness and the knowledge of the Lord, receive him as the
Lord. Bur concerning the apostles and prophets, according to the decree of the
Gospel, thus do: Let every apostle that cometh to you be received as the Lord.
But he shall not remain except one day; but if there be need, also the
next; but if he remain three days, he is a false prophet. And when the apostle
goeth away, let him take nothing but bread until he lodgeth; but if he ask
money, he is a false prophet” (p. 380).

CHAPTER XII—RECEPTION OF CHRISTIANS

“But whosoever saith in the Spirit, Give me money, or something else, ye
shall not listen to him; but if he saith to you to give for other’s sake who are
in need, let no one judge him.

But let every one that cometh in the name of the Lord be received, and
afterward ye shall prove and know him; for ye shall have understanding right and
left. If he who cometh is a wayfarer, assist him as far as ye are able; but he
shall not remain with you, except for two or three days, if need be. But if he
willeth to abide with you, being an artisan, let him work and eat; but if he
hath no trade, according to your understanding see to it that, as a Christian,
he shall not live with you idle. But if he willeth not so to do, he is a
Christ-monger. Watch that ye keep aloof from such” (p. 381).

II. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “from the beginning,” 1:1

2. “God is Light,” 1:5

3. confess, 1:9

4. “my little children,” 2:1

5. advocate, 2:1

6. propitiation, 2:2

7. know, 2:3

8. “abides in Him,” 2:6

9. “do not love the world,” 2:15

10. “the last hour,” 2:18

11. the anointing, 2:27

12. “the Spirit and the water and the blood,” 5:8

13. “a sin leading to death,” 5:16

14. “guard yourselves from idols,” 5:21

III. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. the Word of Life, 1:2

2. antichrist, 2:18 (II John v. 7)

3. antichrists, 2:18

4. the chosen lady, II John v. 1

5. her children, II John v. 1

6. “the children of your chosen sister,” II John v. 13

7. Gaius, III John v. 18.Diotrephes, v. 9

9. Demetrius, v. 12

IV. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT — NONE

V. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Why does 1:1-5 have so many verbs that relate to the five senses?

2. Why would someone say they have no sin? (1:8)

3. How does 2:2 relate to John 3:16?

4. Explain 2:7-8 in your own words.

5. Does 2:12-14 relate to different age groups in the church or all
Christians?

6. Explain 2:22-23 in light of gnostic theology.

7. What is the central truth of the paragraph, 2:28-3:3?

8. Why are 3:6 and 9 so hard to interpret?

9. How does 3:!5 relate to the Sermon on the Mount?

10. Explain 3:20 in your own words.

11. How does one test the spirits? (4:1-6)

12. How does 4:2 relate to gnostic theology? (II John v. )

13. What is the central truth of 4:7-24?

14. How does 5:13 function as one of the themes of the whole book?

15. Does God answer all prayer? (5:14-15)

16. Is II John 10 referring to one’s home or one’s church? Why?

17. Is III John v. 2 a text that promises health and prosperity?

INTRODUCTION TO JUDE

I. OPENING STATEMENTS

A. Jude is a frightening book about the recurrent danger of error, rebellion,
and judgment. Believers must always be on guard. Their protection is

1. the Father’s call, love, and keeping power

2. knowledge of the Scriptures, godly living, and mercy toward wounded fellow
believers.

B. Yet, even amidst the warnings, the conclusion of Jude is one of the
strongest prayers of the affirmation of the keeping power of God.

C. The relationship between Jude and II Peter is uncertain as to:

1. which one was written first

2. why they are so similar yet different

3. how one describes a coming heresy and the other a present heresy

4. whether there was an early church document from which both authors drew

5. whether any of the examples of rebellion involved believers

D. This book illustrates the theological balance between

1. the keeping power of God (vv. 1,24)

2. believers keeping themselves (v. 21)

II. AUTHOR

A. Jude (Hebrew, Judah, or Greek, Judas) characterizes himself by two
designations

1. “a bond-servant of Jesus Christ” – This is not exactly the same as Paul’s
usual designation, although they look the same in English. Paul always puts the
noun “slave” first, followed by the GENITIVE descriptive phrase. This is also
true of II Peter.

However, the word order in Jude is the same as the word order in James
(descriptive GENITIVE phrase first).

2. “a brother of James” – There are many persons in the NT named James
(Jacob), but the name by itself, without any description, reminds one of James
1:1. James, the half-brother of Jesus, was the leader of the Jerusalem church
during Paul’s missionary journeys (cf. Acts 15). It has been speculated that
both half-brothers chose, out of humility, not to identify themselves as
biologically related to Jesus.

B. The simple opening reflects someone who was well-known and active (cf. I
Cor. 9:3) in the early church, but about whom no information has survived. If
someone writing at a later period wanted to write in the name of a famous person
from the past (pseudography), Jude would not be a good candidate.

C. The ancient tradition that Jude was a Hebrew Christian and half-brother of
Jesus (cf. Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3) rests on several assumptions

1. a family relationship to James (cf. James 1:1)

2. the extensive use of the OT

3. the characteristic Hebrew literary use of threes

a. three OT events of apostasy

b. three OT characters

c. opening greeting

(1) three verbs: “called,” “beloved,” “kept”

(2) three prayer requests: “mercy,” “peace,” “love”

D. The Greek style and form of Jude is well-written Koine Greek. Jude must
have had a cosmopolitan exposure (cf. I Cor. 9:5).

As far as personality, he is much like James; he uses a no-nonsense,
straight-forward approach to the mandate for godly living in this world of sin
and rebellion.

III. DATE

A. There is no certainty, only speculation.

B. Let us list some of the parameters

1. during Jude’s lifetime if he was the younger brother of James and
half-brother of Jesus

2. the book of Jude’s literary relationship to II Peter. Of the twenty-five
verses in Jude, sixteen (vv. 3-18) have some association with II Pet. 2:1-18. If
Peter is the author of II Peter, then the date is close to his lifetime (he died
in A.D. 64). It is, however, uncertain who quotes who:

a. II Peter quotes Jude

b. Jude quotes II Peter

c. both use early catachistic documents or church tradition

C. The contents of the book imply a mid-first century date. Enough time had
elapsed for heresy to develop. The physical presence of the Apostles had just
passed (vv. 18-19). However, a uniform doctrine had not developed. Jude mentions
the moral problems of the false teachers, but does not discuss the doctrinal
errors. He uses OT examples, not Jesus’ teachings (quotes or stories).

D. In Historical Ecclesiasticus III:19:1-20:6, Eusebius mentions a
tradition.

1. that Jude’s grandsons were taken to Rome to face Domitian on charges of
treason

2. that they were descendants of Jewish royalty

3. that they were relatives of Jesus of Nazareth

Domitian reigned from A.D. 81-96.

E. A date from the 60’s to the 80’s is possible.

IV. RECIPIENTS AND OCCASION

A. The early church was not theologically monolithic; even the Apostles
emphasized different aspects of the gospel. As the Apostles began to die (or at
least were too few and too far away to be consulted) and the Second Coming
continued to be delayed, the early church faced the challenge of “standardizing”
acceptable parameters for gospel teachings. The OT, the words and stories of
Jesus, and the preaching of the Apostles became the standards.

B. Jude was written in a day of flux and disruption of clear authority. The
believers (whether a local church or geographical area is uncertain) were facing
massive invasion of error through speculative theology/philosophy. What is known
of the heresy:

1. the heretics were part of the church meetings (“love feasts” cf. v. 12)

2. the heretics were immoral, manipulative teachers who were causing
divisions among God’s people (cf. v. 19)

3. the heretics seem to have used or discussed “angels” in their theology

4. the heretics seem to have emphasized “knowledge” (gnosis)

If one is familiar with the Greco-Roman world of the first and second
centuries, these characteristics imply the philosophical/theological movement
known as “Gnosticism.” It is surely true that the origins of these specific
second century heretics were a common element of much near-eastern thought.
Elements of the dualism so characteristic of Gnosticism is present in the Dead
Sea Scrolls. Many of the NT books (Eph. – Col, the Pastorals, I, II John) were
written to combat a similar type of false teaching/teachers.

V. PURPOSE

A. The author desired to write about their common salvation (cf. v. 3).

B. The invasion of false teachings and teachers into the inner fellowship
times of the church (cf. v. 12) caused the author to address the burning issue
of “the faith once and for all given to the church” (cf. vv. 3,20). His goal was
orthodoxy, but he approached the subject through godly living (orthopraxy), not
doctrine (very similar to James 2:14-24). How people lived was a clear window
into their theology.

C. The author wants to encourage believers to

1. grow spiritually (cf. v. 20)

2. be assured of salvation (cf. vv. 21,24-25)

3. help the fallen (cf. vv. 22-23)

VI. CANONIZATION

A. This book was initially accepted (cf. quote by Clement of Rome about A.D.
94), then later disputed and finally fully accepted (Council of Nicea, A.D. 325
and Carthage, A.D. 397).

B. Its major problem in acquiring canonical status was its quote of
non-canonical books (I Enoch and the Assumption of Moses). These books,
especially I Enoch, circulated widely among the believers of the first century
and were theologically influential.

1. Why is this a problem? Does it imply that the non-canonical books are
authoritative?

a. the OT quotes non-inspired writing (cf. Num. 21:14-15,26-30 [Balaam’s
prophecies in Num. 22-23]; Josh. 10:13; II Sam. 1:18ff; I Kgs. 11:41; 14:19,29;
15:7,23,31)

b. Jesus used non-canonical sources as illustrative material (cf. Matt.
23:35)

c. Stephen used non-canonical sources (cf. Acts 7:4,14-16)

d. Paul often used non-canonical sources

(1) Rabbinic Midrash concerning Christ as a rock that followed the children
of Israel during the wilderness wandering period (cf. I Cor. 10:4)

(2) the names of Pharaoh’s magicians from Exod. 7:11,22; 8:7 (cf. II Tim.
3:8) were taken from some intertestamental Jewish writings

(3) Greek writers

a) the poet Aratus (Acts 17:28)

b) the poet Menander (I Cor. 15:33)

c) the poet Epimenides or Euripes (Titus 1:12)

e. James used rabbinical tradition in James 5:17

f. John used the mythology of near eastern cosmologies in Rev. 12:3

2. Why did Jude use these non-canonical sources?

a. possibly they were freely used by the false teachers

b. possibly they were respected and read by the recipients

C. Support for Jude’s canonicity is supported by

1. quoted or alluded to by

a. Clement of Rome (A.D. 94-97)

b. Polycarp (A.D. 110-50)

c. Irenaeus (A.D. 130-202)

d. Tertullian (A.D. 150-220)

e. Athenagoras (A.D. 177)

f. Origen (A.D. 185-254)

(These are taken from International Critical Commentary, pp. 305-308)

2. named in

a. Clement of Alexandria (A.D. 150-215)

b. Cyril of Jerusalem (A.D. 315-386)

c. Jerome (A.D. 340-420)

d. Augustine (A.D. 400)

3. listed in the canonical lists of

a. Muratorian fragment (A.D. 200)

b. Barococcio (A.D. 206)

c. Athanasius (A.D. 367)

4. affirmed by Councils

a. Nicea (A.D. 325)

b. Hippo (A.D. 393)

c. Carthage (A.D. 397 and 419)

5. present in the translations of

a. Old Latin (A.D. 150-170)

b. Syriac Revision, the Peshitta (5^th Century A.D.)

D. The later church was unsure of Jude’s canonical (inspired) status.
Eusebius listed it among the disputed books (Hist. Eccl. III:25). Both
Chrysostom and Jerome mention Jude’s quoting from non-canonical sources as the
reason it is disputed by some as canonical. It was rejected by the early Syrian
church along with II Peter, II and III John. This is probably because it was
this area of the Empire which was affected by Gnostic use of Jewish angeology.
Therefore, Jude and I Peter added fuel to the false teachers’ arguments.

E. Just a word about I Enoch. It was originally written in Hebrew (but is now
lost except for fragments in Aramaic among the Dead Sea Scrolls), translated
into Greek (only fragments survive) and by A.D. 600 copied into Ethiopian (one
copy survives). The book was written in the inter-biblical period, but was
edited many times, as the Ethiopian copy shows. It was very influential in the
early church; Tertullian quotes it as Scripture. It was cited in the Epistle of
Barnabas (as Scripture) and by Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria. It had lost
favor in the early church by the fourth century.

VII. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “our common salvation,” v. 3

2. “the faith which was once and for all handed down to the saints,” v. 3

3. licentiousness, v. 4

4. “their proper abode,” v. 6

5. “eternal bonds under darkness,” v. 6

6. “strange flesh,” v. 7

7. “eternal fire,” v. 7

8. love feasts, v. 12

9. holy ones, v. 14

10. “praying in the Holy Spirit,” v. 20

11. “the only God,” v. 25

VIII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “certain persons have crept in,” v. 4

2. “angels who did not keep their own domain,” v. 6

3. Michael, v. 9

4. Balaam, v. 11

5. Korah, v. 11

6. Enoch, v. 14

7. “to Him who is able,” v. 24

IX. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Egypt, v. 5

2. Sodom and Gomorrah, v. 7

X. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. To what kind of false teachers is Jude referring? (cf. 8-13)

2. Why does Jude quote non-canonical books? (vv. 9, 14-15)

3. How does one keep himself in the love of God? (v. 21)

4. What is the central theme of Jude?

5. How is Jude related to II Peter?

INTRODUCTION TO OT PROPHECY

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Opening Statements

1. The believing community does not agree on how to interpret prophecy. Other
truths have been established as to an orthodox position throughout the
centuries, but not this one.

2. There are several well defined stages of OT prophecy

a. premonarchial (before King Saul)

(1) individuals called prophets

a) Abraham – Gen. 20:7

b) Moses – Num. 12:6-8; Deut. 18:15; 34:10

c) Aaron – Exod. 7:1 (spokesman for Moses)

d) Miriam – Exod. 15:20

e) Medad and Eldad – Num. 11:24-30

f) Deborah – Judg. 4:4

g) unnamed – Judg. 6:7-10

h) Samuel – I Sam. 3:20

(2) references to prophets as a group – Deut. 13:1-5; 18:20-22

(3) prophetic groups or guilds – I Sam. 10:5-13; 19:20; I Kgs. 20:35,41;
22:6,10-13; II Kgs. 2:3,7; 4:1,38; 5:22; 6:1, etc.

(4) Messiah called prophet – Deut. 18:15-18

b. non-writing monarchial prophets (they address the king)

(1) Gad – I Sam. 7:2; 12:25; II Sam. 24:11; I Chron. 29:29

(2) Nathan – II Sam. 7:2; 12:25; I Kgs. 1:22

(3) Ahijah – I Kgs. 11:29

(4) Jehu – I Kgs. 16:1,7,12

(5) unnamed – I Kgs. 18:4,13; 20:13,22

(6) Elijah -I Kgs. 18; II Kgs. 2

(7) Milcaiah – I Kgs. 22

(8) Elisha – II Kgs. 2:8,13

c. classical writing prophets (they address the nation as well as the king):
Isaiah—Malachi (except Daniel)

B. Biblical Terms

1. ro’eh = seer, I Sam. 9:9. This reference shows the transition to
the term Nabi, which means “prophet” and comes from the root, “to call.”
Ro’eh is from the general Hebrew term “to see.” This person understood God’s
ways and plans and was consulted to ascertain God’s will in a matter.

2. hozeh = seer, II Sam. 24:11. It is basically a synonym of ro’eh.
It is from a rarer Hebrew term “to see.” The participle form is used most often
to refer to prophets.

3. nabi’ = prophet, cognate of Akkadian verb
nabu = “to call” and Arabic naba’a = “to announce.” This is the
most common OT term to designate a prophet. It is used over 300 times. The exact
etymology is uncertain, but “to call” at present seems the best option. Possibly
the best understanding comes form YHWH’s description of Moses’ relationship to
Pharaoh through Aaron (cf. Exod. 4:10-16; 7:1; Deut. 5:5). A prophet is someone
who speaks for God to His people (cf. Amos 3:8; Jer. 1:7,17; Ezek. 3:4).

4. All three terms are used of the prophet’s office in I Chron. 29:29; Samuel
– Ro’eh; Nathan – Nabi’; and Gad – Hozeh.

5. The phrase ‘ish ha – ‘elohim, “man of God,” is also a broader
designation for a speaker for God. It is used some 76 times in the OT in the
sense of “prophet.”

6. The word “prophet” is Greek in origin. It comes from (1) pro = “before” or
“for”; (2) phemi = “to speak.”

II. DEFINITION OF PROPHECY

A. The term “prophecy” had a wider semantic field in Hebrew than in English.
The Jews labeled the history books of Joshua through Kings (except Ruth) “the
former prophets.” Both Abraham (Gen. 20:7; Ps. 105:5) and Moses (Deut. 18:18)
are designated as prophets (also Miriam, Exod. 15:20). Therefore, beware of an
assumed English definition!

B. “Propheticism may legitimately be defined as that understanding of history
which accepts meaning only in terms of divine concern, divine purpose, divine
participation” (Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, vol. 3, p. 896).

C. “The prophet is neither a philosopher nor a systematic theologian, but a
covenant mediator who delivers the word of God to His people in order to shape
their future by reforming their present” (“Prophets and Prophecy,”
Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 13, p. 1152).

III. PURPOSE OF PROPHECY

A. Prophecy is a way for God to speak to His people, providing guidance in
their current setting and hope in His control of their lives and world events.
Their message was basically corporate. It is meant to rebuke, encourage,
engender faith and repentance, and inform God’s people about Himself and His
plans. Often it is used to clearly reveal God’s choice of a spokesman (Deut.
13:1-3; 18:20-22). This, taken ultimately, would refer to the Messiah.

B. Often, the prophet took a historical or theological crisis of his day and
projected it into an eschatological setting. This end-time view of history
(teleological) is unique to Israel and her sense of divine election and covenant
promises.

C. The office of prophet seems to balance (Jer. 18:18) and supplant the
office of High Priest as a way of knowing God’s will. The Urim and Thummim
transcend into a verbal message from God’s spokesman. The office of prophet
seems to also have passed away in Israel after Malachi. It does not appear until
400 years later with John the Baptist. It is uncertain how the New Testament
gift of “prophecy” relates to the OT. New Testament prophets (Acts 11:27-28;
13:1; 14:29,32,37; 15:32; I Cor. 12:10,28-29; Eph. 4:11) are not revealers of
new revelation, but forth-tellers and fore-tellers of God’s will in covenant
situations.

D. Prophecy is not exclusively or primarily predictive in
nature. Prediction is one way to confirm his office and his message, but it must
be noted “. . .less than 2% of OT prophecy is Messianic. Less than 5%
specifically describes the New Covenant Age. Less than 1% concerns events yet to
come” (Fee & Stuart, How To Read The Bible For All It Is Worth, p. 166).

E. Prophets represent God to the people, while Priests represent the people
to God. This is a general statement. There are exceptions like Habakkuk, who
addresses questions to God.

F. One reason it is difficult to understand the prophets is because we do not
know how their books were structured. They are not chronological. They seem to
be thematic, but not always the way one would expect. Often there is no obvious
historical setting, time-frame, or clear division between oracles, it is
difficult (1) to read the books through in one sitting; (2) to outline them by
topic; and (3) to ascertain the central truth or authorial intent in each
oracle.

IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF PROPHECY

A. In the Old Testament there seems to be a development of the concept of
“prophet” and “prophecy.” In early Israel there developed a fellowship of
prophets, led by a strong charismatic leader such as Elijah or Elisha. Sometimes
the phrase “the sons of the prophets” was used to designate this group (II Kgs.
2). The prophets at times were characterized by forms of ecstasy (I Sam.
10:10-13; 19:18-24).

B. However, this period passed rapidly into the time of individual prophets.
There were those prophets (both true and false) who identified with the King,
and lived at the palace (Gad, Nathan). Also, there were those who were
independent, sometimes totally unconnected with the status quo of Israelite
society (Amos). They are both male and female (II Kgs. 22:14).

C. The prophet was often a revealer of the future, conditioned on man’s
immediate response. Often the prophet’s task was to unfold God’s universal plan
for His creation which is not affected by human response. This universal
eschatological plan is unique among the prophets of the Ancient Near East.
Prediction and Covenant fidelity are twin foci of the prophetic messages (cf.
Fee and Stuart, p. 150). This implies that the prophets were primarily corporate
in focus. They usually, but not exclusively, address the nation.

D. Most prophetic material was presented orally. It was later combined by
means of theme or chronology, or other patterns of Near Eastern literature,
which are lost to us. Because it was oral, it is not as structured as written
prose. This makes the books difficult to read straight through and difficult to
understand without a specific historical setting.

E. The prophets use several patterns to convey their messages

1. Court scene – God takes His people to court; often it is a divorce case
where YHWH rejects his wife (Israel) for her unfaithfulness (Hosea 4; Micah 6).

2. Funeral dirge – the special meter of this type of message and its
characteristic “woe” sets it apart as a special form (Isaiah 5; Habakkuk 2).

3. Covenant blessing pronouncement – the conditional nature of the Covenant
is emphasized and the consequences, both positively and negatively, are spelled
out for the future (Deuteronomy 27-28).

V. BIBLICAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR VERIFICATION OF A TRUE PROPHET

A. Deuteronomy 13:1-5 (predictions/signs)

B. Deuteronomy 18:9-22 (false prophets/true prophets)

C. Both men and women are called and designated as prophets or prophetesses

1. Miriam – Exodus 15

2. Deborah – Judges 4:4-6

3. Huldah – II Kings 22:14-20; II Chronicles 34:22-28

In the surrounding cultures prophets were verified by means of divination. In
Israel they were verified by

1. a theological test – the use of the name of YHWH

2. a historical test – accurate predictions

VI. HELPFUL GUIDELINES FOR INTERPRETING PROPHECY

A. Find the intent of the original prophet (editor) by noting the historical
setting and the literary context of each oracle. Usually it will involve Israel
breaking the Mosaic Covenant in some way.

B. Read and interpret the whole oracle, not just a part; outline it as to
content. See how it relates to surrounding oracles. Try to outline the whole
book (by literary units and to paragraph level).

C. Assume a literal interpretation of the passage until something in the text
itself points you to figurative usage; then put the figurative language into
prose.

D. Analyze symbolic action in light of historical setting and parallel
passages. Be sure to remember that this is ancient near eastern literature, not
western or modern literature.

E. Treat predictions with care

1. Are they exclusively for the author’s day?

2. Were they subsequently fulfilled in Israel’s history?

3. Are they yet future events?

4. Do they have a contemporary fulfillment and yet a future fulfillment?

5. Allow the authors of the Bible, not modern authors, to guide your answers.

Special concerns

1. Is the prediction qualified by conditional response?

2. Is it certain to whom the prophecy is addressed (and why)?

3. Is there a possibility both biblically and/or historically for multiple
fulfillments?

4. The NT authors under inspiration were able to see the Messiah in many
places in the OT that are not obvious to us. They seem to use typology or word
play. Since we are not inspired, we best leave this approach to them.

VII. HELPFUL BOOKS

A. A Guide to Biblical Prophecy by Carl E. Armerding and W. Ward
Gasque

B. How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth by Gordon Fee and Douglas
Stuart

C. My Servants the Prophets by Edward J. Young

D. Plowshares and Pruning Hooks: Rethinking the Language of Biblical
Prophecy and Apocalyptic by D. Brent Sandy

E. Cracking the Old Testament Code, D. Brent Sandy and Ronald L.
Giese, Jr.

Crucial Introductory Article – Revelation

(Why Do Christians Have So Many Dogmatic Interpretations of
Revelation)

Through the years of my study of
eschatology I have learned that most Christians do not have or want a developed,
systematized, end-time chronology. There are some Christians who focus or major
on this area of Christianity for theological, psychological, or denominational
reasons. These Christians seem to become obsessed with how it will all end, and
somehow miss the urgency of the gospel! Believers cannot affect God’s
eschatological (end-time) agenda, but they can participate in the gospel mandate
(cf. Matt. 28:19-20; Luke 24:47; Acts 1:8). Most believers affirm a Second
Coming of Christ and an end-time culmination of the promises of God. The
interpretive problems arising from how to understand this temporal culmination
come from several biblical paradoxes.

1. the tension between Old Covenant prophetic models and New Covenant
apostolic models

2. the tension between the Bible’s monotheism (one God for all) and the
election of Israel (a special people)

3. the tension between the conditional aspect of biblical covenants and
promises (“if. . .then”) and the unconditional faithfulness of God to fallen
mankind’s redemption

4. the tension between Near Eastern literary genres and modern western
literary models

5. the tension between the Kingdom of God as present, yet future.

6. the tension between belief in the imminent return of Christ and the belief
that some events must happen first.

Let us discuss these tensions one at a time.

FIRST TENSION (OT racial, national,
and geographical categories vs. all believers over all the world)

The OT prophets predict a restoration of a Jewish kingdom in Palestine
centered in Jerusalem where all the nations of the earth gather to praise and
serve a Davidic ruler, but Jesus nor the NT Apostles ever focus on this agenda.
Is not the OT inspired (cf. Matt. 5:17-19)? Have the NT authors omitted crucial
end-time events?

There are several sources of information about the end of the world:

1. OT prophets (Isaiah, Micah, Malachi)

2. OT apocalyptic writers (cf. Ezek. 37-39; Dan. 7-12; Zech.)

3. intertestamental, non-canonical Jewish apocalyptic writers (like I Enoch,
which is alluded to in Jude)

4. Jesus Himself (cf. Matt. 24; Mark 13; Luke 21)

5. the writings of Paul (cf. I Cor. 15; II Cor. 5; I Thess. 4-5; II Thess. 2)

6. the writings of John (I John and Revelation).

Do these all clearly teach an end-time agenda (events, chronology, persons)?
If not, why? Are they not all inspired (except the Jewish intertestamental
writings)?

The Spirit revealed truths to the OT writers in terms and categories they
could understand. However, through progressive revelation the Spirit has
expanded these OT eschatological concepts to a universal scope (“the mystery of
Christ,” cf. Eph. 2:11-3:13. See Special topic at 10:7). Here are some relevant
examples:

1. The city of Jerusalem in the OT is used as a metaphor of the people of God
(Zion), but is projected into the NT as a term expressing God’s acceptance of
all repentant, believing humans (the new Jerusalem of Revelation 21-22). The
theological expansion of a literal, physical city into the new people of God
(believing Jews and Gentiles) is foreshadowed in God’s promise to redeem fallen
mankind in Gen. 3:15 before there even were any Jews or a Jewish capital city.
Even Abraham’s call (cf. Gen. 12:1-3) involved the Gentiles (cf. Gen. 12:3;
Exod. 19:5).

2. In the OT the enemies of God’s people are the surrounding nations of the
Ancient Near East, but in the NT they have been expanded to all unbelieving,
anti-God, Satanically-inspired people. The battle has moved from a geographical,
regional conflict to a worldwide, cosmic conflict (cf. Colossians).

3. The promise of a land which is so integral in the OT (the Patriarchal
promises of Genesis, cf. Gen. 12:7; 13:15; 15:7-15; 17:8) has now become the
whole earth. New Jerusalem comes down to a recreated earth, not the Near East
only or exclusively (cf. Rev. 21-22).

4. Some other examples of OT prophetic concepts being expanded are (1) the
seed of Abraham is now the spiritually circumcised (cf. Rom. 2:28-29); (2) the
covenant people now include Gentiles (cf. Hos. 1:10; 2:23, quoted in Rom.
9:24-26; also Lev. 26:12; Exod. 29:45,quoted in II Cor. 6:16-18 and Exod. 19:5;
Deut. 14:2, quoted in Titus 2:14); (3) the temple is now Jesus and through Him
the local church (cf. I Cor. 3:16) or the individual believer (cf. I Cor. 6:19);
and (4) even Israel and its characteristic descriptive OT phrases now refer to
the whole people of God (i.e. “Israel,” cf. Rom. 9:6; Gal. 6:16, i.e. “kingdom
of priests,” cf. I Pet. 2:5, 9-10; Rev. 1:6)

The prophetic model has been fulfilled, expanded, and is now more inclusive.
Jesus and the Apostolic writers do not present the end-time in the same way as
the OT prophets (cf. Martin Wyngaarden, The Future of The Kingdom in Prophecy
and Fulfillment). Modern interpreters who try to make the OT model literal
or normative twist the Revelation into a very Jewish book and force meaning into
atomized, ambiguous phrases of Jesus and Paul! The NT writers do not negate the
OT prophets, but show their ultimate universal implication. There is no
organized, logical system to Jesus’ or Paul’s eschatology. Their purpose is
primarily redemptive or pastoral.

However, even within the NT there is tension. There is no clear systemization
of eschatological events. In many ways the Revelation surprisingly uses OT
allusions in describing the end instead of the teachings of Jesus (cf. Matt. 24;
Mark 13)! It follows the literary genre initiated by Ezekiel, Daniel, and
Zechariah, but developed during the intertestamental period (Jewish apocalyptic
literature). This may have been John’s way of linking the Old and New Covenants.
It shows the age-old pattern of human rebellion and God’s commitment to
redemption! But it must be noted that although Revelation uses OT language,
persons, and events, it reinterprets them in light of first century Rome.

SECOND TENSION
(monotheism vs. an elect people)

The biblical emphasis is on one personal, spiritual, creator-redeemer, God
(cf. Exod. 8:10; Isa. 44:24; 45:5-7,14,18,21-22; 46:9; Jer. 10:6-7). The OT’s
uniqueness in its own day was its monotheism. All of the surrounding nations
were polytheists. The oneness of God is the heart of OT revelation (cf. Deut.
6:4). Creation is a stage for the purpose of fellowship between God and mankind,
made in His image and likeness (cf. Gen.1:26-27). However, mankind rebelled,
sinning against God’s love, leadership, and purpose (cf. Gen. 3). God’s love and
purpose was so strong and sure that He promised to redeem fallen humanity (cf.
Gen. 3:15)!

The tension arises when God chooses to use one man, one family, one nation to
reach the rest of mankind. God’s election of Abraham and the Jews as a kingdom
of priests (cf. Exod. 19:4-6) caused pride instead of service, exclusion instead
of inclusion. God’s call of Abraham involved the intentional blessing of all
mankind (cf. Gen. 12:3). It must be remembered and emphasized that OT election
was for service, not salvation. All Israel was never right with God, never
eternally saved based solely on her birthright (cf. John 8:31-59; Matt. 3:9),
but by personal faith and obedience (cf. Gen. 15:6, quoted in Rom. 4). Israel
lost her mission, turned mandate into privilege, service into a special
standing! God chose one to choose all!

THIRD TENSION
(conventional covenants vs. unconditional covenants)

There is a theological tension or paradox between conditional and
unconditional covenants. It is surely true that God’s redemptive purpose/plan is
unconditional (cf. Gen. 15:12-21). However, the mandated human response is
always conditional!

The “if. . .then” pattern appears in both OT and NT. God is faithful; mankind
is unfaithful. This tension has caused much confusion. Interpreters have tended
to focus on only one “horn of the dilemma,” God’s faithfulness or human effort,
God’s sovereignty or mankind’s free will. Both are biblical and necessary.

This relates to eschatology, to God’s OT promises to Israel. If God promises
it, that settles it, yes? God is bound to His promises; His reputation is
involved (cf. Ezek. 36:22-38). The unconditional and conditional covenants meet
in Christ (cf. Isa. 53), not Israel! God’s ultimate faithfulness lies in the
redemption of all who will repent and believe, not in who was your
father/mother! Christ, not Israel, is the key to all of God’s covenants and
promises. If there is a theological parenthesis in the Bible, it is not the
Church, but Israel (cf. Acts 7 and Gal. 3).

The world mission of gospel proclamation has passed to the Church (cf. Matt.
28:19-20; Luke 24:47; Acts 1:8). It is still a conditional covenant! This is not
to imply that God has totally rejected the Jews (cf. Rom. 9-11). There may be a
place and purpose for end-time, believing Israel (cf. Zech. 12:10).

FOURTH TENSION (Near Eastern literary
models vs. western models).

Genre is a critical element in correctly interpreting the Bible. The Church
developed in a western (Greek) cultural setting. Eastern literature is much more
figurative, metaphorical, and symbolic than modern, western culture’s literary
models. It focuses on people, encounters, and events more than societal
propositional truths. Christians have been guilty of using their history and
literary models to interpret biblical prophecy (both OT and NT). Each generation
and geographical entity has used its culture, history, and literalness to
interpret Revelation. Every one of them has been wrong! It is arrogant to think
that modern western culture is the focus of biblical prophecy!

The genre in which the original, inspired author chooses to write is a
literary contract with the reader. The book of Revelation is not historical
narrative. It is a combination of letter (chapters 1-3), prophecy, and mostly
apocalyptic literature. It is as wrong to make the Bible say more than was
intended by the original author or to make it say less than what he intended!
Interpreters’ arrogance and dogmatism are even more inappropriate in a book like
Revelation.

The Church has never agreed on a proper interpretation. My concern is to hear
and deal with the whole Bible, not some selected part(s). The Bible’s eastern
mind-set presents truth in tension-filled pairs. Our western trend toward
propositional truth is not invalid, but unbalanced! I think it is possible to
remove at least some of the impasse in interpreting Revelation by noting its
changing purpose to successive generations of believers. It is obvious to most
interpreters that Revelation must be interpreted in light of its own day and its
genre. An historical approach to Revelation must deal with what the first
readers would have, and could have, understood. In many ways modern interpreters
have lost the meaning of many of the symbols of the book. Revelation’s initial
main thrust was to encourage persecuted believers. It showed God’s control of
history (as did the OT prophets); it affirmed that history is moving toward an
appointed terminus, judgment or blessing (as did the OT prophets). It affirmed
in first century Jewish apocalyptic terms God’s love, presence, power, and
sovereignty!

It functions in these same theological ways to every generation of believers.
It depicts the cosmic struggle of good and evil. The first century details may
have been lost to us, but not the powerful, comforting truths. When modern,
western interpreters try to force the details of Revelation into their
contemporary history, the pattern of false interpretations continues!

It is quite possible that the details of the book may become strikingly
literal again (as did the OT in relation to the birth, life, and death of
Christ) for the last generation of believers as they face the onslaught of an
anti-God leader (cf. II Thess.2) and culture. No one can know these literal
fulfillments of the Revelation until the words of Jesus (cf. Matt. 24; Mark.13;
and Luke 21) and Paul (cf. I Cor. 15; I Thess. 4-5; and II Thess. 2) also become
historically evident. Guessing, speculation, and dogmatism are all
inappropriate. Apocalyptic literature allows this flexibility. Thank God for
images and symbols that surpass historical narrative! God is in control; He
reigns; He comes!

Most modern commentaries miss the point of the genre! Modern western
interpreters often seek a clear, logical system of theology rather than being
fair with an ambiguous, symbolic, dramatic genre of Jewish apocalyptic
literature. This truth is expressed well by Ralph P. Martin in his article,
“Approaches to New Testament Exegesis,” in the book New Testament
Interpretation, edited by I. Howard Marshall:

“Unless we recognize the dramatic quality of this writing and recall the way
in which language is being used as a vehicle to express religious truth, we
shall grievously err in our understanding of the Apocalypse, and mistakenly try
to interpret its visions as though it were a book of literal prose and concerned
to describe events of empirical and datable history. To attempt the latter
course is to run into all manner of problems of interpretation. More seriously
it leads to a distortion of the essential meaning of apocalyptic and so misses
the great value of this part of the New Testament as a dramatic assertion in
mythopoetic language of the sovereignty of God in Christ and the paradox of his
rule which blends might and love (cf. 5:5,6; the Lion is the Lamb)” (p. 235).

W. Randolph Tate in his book Biblical Interpretations
said:

“No other genre of the Bible has been so fervently read with such depressing
results as apocalypse, especially the books of Daniel and Revelation. This genre
had suffered from a disastrous history of misinterpretation due to a fundamental
misunderstanding of its literary forms, structure, and purpose. Because of its
very claim to reveal what is shortly to happen, apocalypse has been viewed as a
road map into and a blueprint of the future. The tragic flaw in this view is the
assumption that the books’ frame of reference is the reader’s contemporary age
rather than the author’s. This misguided approach to apocalypse (particularly
Revelation) treats the work as if it were a cryptogram by which contemporary
events can be used to interpret the symbol of the text. . .First, the
interpreter must recognize that apocalyptic communicates its messages through
symbolism. To interpret a symbol literally when it is metaphoric is simply to
misinterpret. The issue is not whether the events in apocalyptic are historical.
The events may be historical; they may have really happened, or might happen,
but the author presents events and communicates meaning through images and
archetypes” (p. 137).

From Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, edited by Ryken, Wilhost and
Longman III:

“Today’s readers are often puzzled and frustrated by this genre. The
unexpected imagery and out-of-this-world experiences seem bizarre and out of
sync with most of Scripture. Taking this literature at face value leaves many
readers scrambling to determine ‘what will happen when,’ thus missing the intent
of the apocalyptic message” (p. 35).

FIFTH TENSION (the Kingdom of God as
present yet future)

The kingdom of God is both present, yet future. This theological paradox
becomes focused at the point of eschatology. If one expects a literal
fulfillment of all OT prophecies to Israel then the Kingdom becomes mostly a
restoration of Israel to a geographical locality and a theological pre-eminence!
This would necessitate that the Church is secretly raptured out at chapter 5 and
the remaining chapters relate to Israel.

However, if the focus is on the kingdom being inaugurated by the promised OT
Messiah, then it is present with Christ’s first coming, then the focus becomes
the incarnation, life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Christ. The
theological emphasis is on a current salvation. The kingdom has come, the OT is
fulfilled in Christ’s offer of salvation to all, not His millennial reign over
some!

It is surely true that the Bible speaks of both of Christ’s comings, but
where is the emphasis to be placed? It seems to me that most OT prophecies focus
on the first coming, the establishment of the Messianic kingdom (cf. Dan. 2). In
many ways this is analogous to the eternal reign of God (cf. Dan. 7). In the OT
the focus is on the eternal reign of God, yet the mechanism for that reign’s
manifestation is the ministry of the Messiah (cf. I Cor. 15:26-27). It is not a
question of which is true; both are true, but where is the emphasis? It must be
said that some interpreters become so focused on the millennial reign of the
Messiah (cf. Rev. 20) that they have missed the biblical focus on the eternal
reign of the Father. Christ’s reign is a preliminary event. As the two comings
of Christ were not obvious in the OT, neither is a temporal reign of the
Messiah!

The key to Jesus’ preaching and teaching is the kingdom of God. It is both
present (in salvation and service), and future (in pervasiveness and power).
Revelation, if it focuses on a Messianic millennial reign (cf. Rev. 20), is
preliminary, not ultimate (cf. Rev. 21-22). It is not obvious from the OT that a
temporal reign is necessary; as a matter of fact, the Messianic reign of Daniel
7 is eternal, not millennial.

SIXTH TENSION (imminent return of
Christ vs. the delayed Parousia)

Most believers have been taught that Jesus is coming soon, suddenly, and
unexpectedly (cf. Matt. 10:23; 24:27,34,44; Mark 9:1; 13:30). But every
expectant generation of believers so far has been wrong! The soonness
(immediacy) of Jesus’ return is a powerful promised hope of every generation,
but a reality to only one (and that one a persecuted one). Believers must live
as if He were coming tomorrow, but plan and implement the Great Commission (cf.
Matt. 28:19-20) if He tarries.

Some passages in the Gospels (cf. Mark 13:10; Luke 17:2; 18:8) and I and II
Thessalonians are based on a delayed Second Coming (Parousia). There are
some historical events that must happen first:

1. world-wide evangelization (cf. Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:10)

2. the revelation of “the man of Sin” (cf. Matt. 24:15; II Thess. 2; Rev. 13)

3. the great persecution (cf. Matt. 24:21,24; Rev. 13)

There is a purposeful ambiguity (cf. Matt. 24:42-51; Mark 13:32-36)! Live
everyday as if it were your last but plan and train for future ministry!

CONSISTENCY AND BALANCE

It must be said that the different schools of modern eschatological
interpretation all contain half truths. They explain and interpret well some
texts. The problem lies in consistency and balance. Often there is a set of
presuppositions which use the biblical text to fill in the pre-set theological
skeleton. The Bible does not reveal a logical, chronological, systematic
eschatology. It is like a family album. The pictures are true, but not always in
order, in context, in a logical sequence. Some of the pictures have fallen out
of the album and later generations of family members do not know exactly how to
put them back. The key to proper interpretation of Revelation is the intent of
the original author as revealed in his choice of literary genre. Most
interpreters try to carry their exegetical tools and procedures from other
genres of the NT into their interpretations of Revelation. They focus on the OT
instead of allowing the teachings of Jesus and Paul to set the theological
structure and let Revelation act as illustrative.

I must admit that I approach this commentary with some fear and trepidation,
not because of the curse of Rev. 22:18-19, but because of the level of
controversy the interpretation of this book has caused and continues to cause
among God’s people. I love God’s revelation. It is true when all men are liars
(cf. Rom. 3:4)! Please use this commentary as an attempt to be thought provoking
and not definitive, as a sign post and not a road map, as a “what if,” not a
“thus says the Lord.” I have come face to face with my own inadequacies, biases,
and theological agenda. I have also seen those of other interpreters. It almost
seems that people find in Revelation what they expect to find. The genre lends
itself to abuse! However, it is in the Bible for a purpose. Its placement as the
concluding “word” is not by accident. It has a message from God to His children
of each and every generation. God wants us to understand! Let us join hands, not
form camps; let us affirm what is clear and central, not all that may be, might
be, could be true. God help us all!

Use this space to list your own presuppositions about how to interpret the
Revelation. All of us bring our biases with us into the interpretation of this
book. Identifying them helps us overcome their influence and limits our
dogmatism.

1.

2.

3.

4.

INTRODUCTION TO REVELATION

I. OPENING STATEMENTS

A. Most of my adult academic/theological life I have had the presupposition
that those who believe the Bible take it “literally” (and that is surely true
for historical narrative). However, it has become more and more obvious to me
that to take prophecy, poetry, parables, and apocalyptic literature literally is
to miss the point of the inspired text. The author’s intent, not literalness, is
the key to a proper understanding of the Bible. To make the Bible say more
(doctrinal specificity) is as dangerous and misleading as to interpret it in
such a way as to make it say less than was intended by the original, inspired
writer. The focus must be the larger context, the historical setting, and the
intention the author expressed in the text itself and in his choice of genre.
Genre is a literary contract between the author and the reader. To miss this
clue is surely to lead to misinterpretation!

The book of Revelation is surely true, but not historical narrative, not
meant to be taken literally. The genre itself is screaming this point to us if
we will only hear it. This does not mean that it is not inspired, or not true;
it is just figurative, cryptic, symbolic, metaphorical, and imaginative. The
first century Jews and Christians were familiar with this type of literature,
but we are not! The Christian symbolism in the
Lord of the Rings or the Chronicles of Narnia might possibly be
modern parallels.

B. Revelation is a uniquely Jewish literary genre, apocalyptic. It was often
used in tension-filled times to express the conviction that God was in control
of history and would bring deliverance to His people. This type of literature is
characterized by

1. a strong sense of the universal sovereignty of God (monotheism and
determinism)

2. a struggle between good and evil, this evil age and the age of
righteousness to come (dualism)

3. use of secret code words (usually from the OT or intertestamental Jewish
apocalyptic literature)

4. use of colors, numbers, animals, sometimes animals/humans

5. use of angelic mediation by means of visions and dreams, but usually
through angelic mediation and interpretation

6. primarily focuses on the soon-coming, climatic events of the end-time (new
age)

7. use of a fixed set of symbols, not reality, to communicate the end-time
message from God

8. Some examples of this type of genre are:

a. Old Testament

(1) Isaiah 24-27, 56-66

(2) Ezekiel 37-48

(3) Daniel 7-12

(4) Joel 2:28-3:21

(5) Zechariah 1-6, 12-14

b. New Testament

(1) Matthew 24, Mark 13, Luke 21, and I Corinthians 15 (in some ways)

(2) II Thessalonians 2 (in most ways)

(3) Revelation (chapters 4-22)

c. Daniel 7-12 and Rev. 4-22 are the classic examples of this genre in the
Bible

9. non-canonical (taken from D. S. Russell, The Method and Message of
Jewish Apocalyptic, pp. 37-38)

a. I Enoch, II Enoch (the Secrets of Enoch)

b. The Book of Jubilees

c. The Sibylline Oracles III, IV, V

d. The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs

e. The Psalms of Solomon

f. The Assumption of Moses

g. The Martyrdom of Isaiah

h. The Apocalypse of Moses (Life of Adam and Eve)

i. The Apocalypse of Abraham

j. The Testament of Abraham

k. II Esdras (IV Esdras)

l. II & III Baruch

10. There is a sense of duality in this genre. It sees reality as a series of
dualisms, contrasts, or tensions (so common in John’s writings) between:

a. heaven – earth

b. evil age (evil men and evil angels) – new age of righteousness (godly men
and godly angels)

c. current existence – future existence

All of these are moving toward a consummation brought about by God. This is
not the world God intended it to be, but He is continuing to play, work, and
project His will for a restoration of the intimate fellowship begun in the
Garden of Eden. The Christ event is the watershed of God’s plan, but the two
comings have brought about the current dualisms.

C. These apocalyptic works were never presented orally. They are highly
structured, literary works. The structure is crucial to a proper interpretation.
A major part of the planned structure of the book of Revelation is seven
literary units, which parallel each other to some extent, e.g. the seven seals,
seven trumpets, and seven bowls. With each cycle the judgment increases: seals,
1/4 destruction; trumpets, 1/3 destruction; bowls, total destruction. Within
each literary unit the Second Coming of Christ or some eschatological event
occurs: (1) sixth seal, 6:12-17; (2) seventh trumpet, 11:15-18; an end-time
angel judgment in 14:14-20; (3) seventh bowl, 16:17-21 and again in 19:11-21 and
still again in 22:6-16. This shows that the book is not chronologically
sequential, but a drama in several acts which foresees the same period of time
in progressively violent OT judgment motifs (cf. James Blevins, Revelation as
Drama
and “The Genre of Revelation” in Review and Expositor, Sept. 1980, pp.
393-408).

There are seven literary sections plus a prologue and an epilogue

1. prologue, 1:1-8

2. chapters 1-3 (Christ and the seven churches)

3. chapters 4-8:1 (heaven and the seven seals)

4. chapters 8:2-11 (seven angels with trumpets)

5. chapters 12-14 (the two communities and their leaders)

6. chapters15-16 (seven angels with bowls)

7. chapters 17-19 (Babylon and its judgment)

8. chapters 20-22 (judgment and the rew heaven and earth)

9. epilog, 22:6-21

William Hendriksen’s More Than Conquerors outline is

1. chapters 1-3 (Christ in the midst of the Seven Lampstands)

2. chapters 4-7 (The Book with Seven Seals)

3. chapters 8-11 (the Seven Trumpets of Judgment)

4. chapters 12-14 (the woman and the man-child persecuted by the Dragon and
His Helpers [the Beast and the Harlot])

5. chapters 15-16 (the Seven Bowls of Wrath)

6. chapters 17-19 (the fall of the Great Harlot and of the Beasts)

7. chapters 20-22 (the judgment upon the Dragon (Satan) followed by the New
Heaven and Earth, New Jerusalem), p.28

In More Than Conquerors, William Hendriksen says that Revelation has
seven sections: 1-3; 4-7; 8-11; 12-14; 15-16; 20-22 and that each of these is
parallel and covers the period between Christ’s first coming and His second
coming. Each ends with some aspect related to judgment and the Second Coming
(pp. 22-31).

Although I surely agree in the dramatic parallelism of the seals, trumpets,
and bowls and I also am very attracted to 17-19 being parallel to 20-22 (there
is the second coming in 19:11-21 and another second coming in 22:6-16), I cannot
see where each of his seven sections ends in the Parousia, especially
chapters 1-3, unless there is an aspect of judgment and coming at the end of
each one (cf. 2:5,7,11,16-17,25-26; 3:5; 10:12,18-21). This seven-fold
recapitulation is becoming more and more a possibility for understanding the
parallel structure of the whole book.

D. It is obvious that the number “seven” plays a large part in the structure
of the book as can be seen from the seven churches, seven seals, seven trumpets,
and seven bowls. Some other examples of “seven” are:

1. 7 blessings, 1:3; 14:13; 16:15; 19:9; 20:6; 22:7,14

2. 7 lampstands, 1:12

3. 7 spirits of God, 1:4; 3:1; 4:5; 5:6

4. 7 stars, 1:16,20; 2:1

5. 7 lamps of fire, 4:5

6. 7 seals on scroll, 5:1

7. 7 horns, 7 eyes of the lamb, 5:6

8. 7 attributes of Jesus praised, 5:12

9. 7 signs in nature, 6:12-14

10. 7 types of men, 6:15

11. 7 attributes of God praised, 7:12

12. 7 angels before God, 8:2,6

13. 7 trumpets held by the seven angels, 8:6 (15:1,6,7,8; 17:1; 21:9)

14. 7 signs, 12:1,3; 13:13,14; 15:1; 16:14; 19:20

15. 7 heads, 7 diadems of the red dragon, 12:3

16. 7 heads of the sea beast, 13:1; 17:3,8

17. 7 angels, 14:6-20

18. 7 plagues, 15:1; 21:9

19. 7 hills, 17:9

20. 7 kings 17:10

21. 7 things that are no more in chapters 21-22 (21:1,4[four times]; 21:25;
22:3)

E. The interpretation of this book is most susceptible to theological bias.
One’s presuppositions drive the interpretation of the ambiguous details. These
theological presuppositions function on several levels

1. the origin of the symbols

a. Old Testament allusions

(1) the OT themes like creation, the fall, the flood, the exodus, restored
Jerusalem

(2) hundreds of allusions (not direct quotes) from the prophets

b. intertestamental Jewish literature (I Enoch, II Baruch, Sibylline Oracles,
II Esdras)

c. first century Greco-Roman world

d. ancient near eastern cosmological-creation accounts (especially Rev. 12)

2. the time frame of the book

a. first century

b. every century

c. last generation

3. systematic theological grids

a. preterist

b. historicist

c. futurist

d. idealist

4. theological positions on chapter 20

a. a millennial

b. post millennial

c. pre millennial

d. dispensational pre-millennial

In light of hermeneutical divergence (the different approaches to
interpretation) and inappropriate dogmatism (the know-it-all attitude), how
should an interpreter proceed?

1. let us admit that modern western Christians do not understand the genre
and do not recognize the historical allusions that first century Christians
would have immediately understood.

2. let us admit that every generation of Christians has forced the Revelation
into its personal historical setting and all have been wrong so far.

3. Let us read the Bible before we read the theological systems. Look for the
literary context of each vision/oracle and state the central truth in one
declarative sentence. The central truth will be the same for every generation of
believers while the specificity of the details may be relevant for only the
first and/or last generation of believers. The details may be relevant, but
history, not theology, will reveal their purpose.

4. Let us remember that this book is primarily a word of comfort and
encouragement to faithfulness amidst the persecution of believers by
unbelievers. This book is not meant to answer the curiosity of every generation
of believers, nor outline a detailed plan of end-time events.

5. It is safe to affirm that fallen human society is on a collision course
with the kingdom of God. It will appear at first that the world has won (like
Calvary), but wait; God is sovereign, He is in control of history, of life and
death. His people are victorious in Him!

F. Despite the difficulty and ambiguity of interpretation, this book has a
message and is an inspired word from God to His people in every age. It is worth
the extra effort necessary to study this unique book. Its strategic position in
the NT canon speaks of its capstone message. Alan Johnson, The Expositor’s
Bible Commentary, vol. 12, says “Indeed, it may well be that, with the
exception of the Gospels, the Apocalypse contains the most profound and moving
teaching on Christian doctrine and discipleship found anywhere in Holy
Scripture. Neither the fanaticism of some who have fixed their attention on
prophecy rather than on Christ, nor the diversity of interpretive view-points
should discourage us from pursuing Christian truth in this marvelous book” (p.
399).

Remember, these are truly the last words of Jesus to His church! The modern
Church dares not ignore or minimize them! They are to prepare believers for
persecution and conflict in light of God’s sovereignty (monotheism), the reality
of the evil one (limited dualism), the ongoing results of the fall (human
rebellion), and God’s promises to redeem mankind (unconditional covenant cf.
Gen. 3:15; 12:1-3; Exod. 19:5-6; John 3:16; II Cor. 5:21).

II. AUTHOR

A. Internal evidence of John the Apostle’s authorship

1. Author named himself four times as John (cf. 1:1,4,9; 22:8)

2. He also called himself

a. a bond servant (cf.1:1; 22:6)

b. a brother and fellow-partaker in tribulation (cf. 1:9)

c. a prophet (cf. 22:9), and called his book a prophecy (cf. 1:3;
22:7,10,18,19)

3. He knows the OT (does not use LXX, but Targums) as well as Tabernacle and
Synagogue procedures

B. External evidence of John the Apostle’s authorship from early Christian
authors

1. John the Apostle, son of Zebedee

a. Justin Martyr (Rome A.D. 110-165) in Dialogue with Trypho 81.4

b. Irenaeus (Lyons A.D. 120-202) in Against Heresies
IV.14.2; 17.6; 21.3; V.16.1; 28.2; 30.3; 34.6; 35.2

c. Tertullian (North Africa A.D. 145-220) in Against Praxeas 27

d. Origen (Alexandria A.D. 181-252) in

(1) On the Soul, L:8:1

(2) Against Marcion, II:5

(3) Against Heretics, III:14, 25

(4) Against Celsus, VI:6, 32; VIII:17

e. The Muratorian Canon (Rome A.D. 180-200)

2. Other Candidates

a. John Mark – This was first mentioned by Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria
(A.D. 247-264), who denied the authorship of John the Apostle but still held the
work as canonical. He based his rejection on vocabulary and style as well as the
anonymous nature of John’s other writings. He convinced Eusebius of Caesarea.

b. John the elder – This comes from a quote in Eusebius from Papias (Eccl.
His. 3.39.1-7). However, Papias’ quote probably used this title for John the
Apostle rather than its asserting another author.

c. John the Baptist – (with later editorial additions) has been suggested by
J. Massyngberde Ford in the Anchor Bible commentary, based primarily on John the
Baptist’s use of “lamb” for Jesus. The only other occurrence of this title is in
Revelation.

C. Dionysius, the bishop of Alexandria (A.D. 247-264) and student of Origen,
was the first to express doubts (his book has been lost, but he is quoted by
Eusebius of Caesara, who agreed with him) about John the Apostle’s authorship,
based on

1. John the Apostle does not refer to himself as John in the Gospel nor his
letters, but Revelation is from “John”

2. the structure of Revelation is different from the Gospel and the letters

3. the vocabulary of Revelation is different from the Gospel and the letters

4. the grammatical style of Revelation is of inferior quality to the Gospel
and the letters

D. Probably the most serious modern challenge to John the Apostle’s
authorship comes from R. H. Charles in Saint John, Vol. I p. xxxixff.

E. The majority of modern scholarship has rejected the traditional authorship
of many of the NT books. A good example of this trend related to the authorship
of Revelation might be Raymond E. Brown, a renowned Catholic Johannine scholar.
The introductory volume of the Anchor Bible Commentary series says, “written by
a Jewish Christian prophet named John who was neither John, son of Zebedee, nor
the writer of the Johannine Gospel or of the Epistles” (p. 774).

F. In many ways authorship is uncertain. There are striking parallels with
the Apostle John’s other writings and also striking differences. The key to
understanding this book is not in its human author, but in its Divine author!
The author believed himself to be an inspired prophet (cf. 1:3; 22:7,10,18,19).

III. DATE

A. This is certainly integrally linked to authorship and interpretive
perspective (cf. Historical Theories C.)

B. Some possible dates:

1. The traditional date is during Domitian’s reign (A.D. 81-96) because it
fits internal evidence of persecution

a. Irenaeus (quoted by Eusebius) in Against Heresies, 5.30.3. “It
(this persecution) was seen not very long ago, almost in our generation, at the
close of the reign of Domitian”

b. Clement of Alexandria

c. Origin of Alexandria

d. Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History, iii.23.1

e. Victorinus, Apocalypse x.11

f. Jerome

2. Epiphanius, a third century writer, in Haer, 51.12, 32, says that
John wrote it after his release from Patmos which was during Claudius’ reign
(A.D. 41-54).

3. Others supposed it to be during Nero’s reign (A.D. 54-68) because of:

a. the obvious background of Emperor cult persecution

b. Caesar Nero, written in Hebrew, equals the number of the beast, 666

c. If preterists are correct that John’s Revelation refers to the destruction
of Jerusalem, then if the book is prophecy, it must have been written before
A.D. 70

IV. RECIPIENTS

A. From 1:4 it is obvious that the original recipients were seven churches in
the Roman Province of Asia. These churches are addressed in such a way as to
imply the travel route of the bearer of the letter.

B. The message of Revelation uniquely relates to all churches and believers
who are experiencing persecution from a fallen world system.

C. As the canonical conclusion to the NT this book is a message of
consummation to all believers of all ages.

V. OCCASION

A. The setting was persecution caused by the separation of the local churches
from the legal protection Rome accorded to Judaism. This division occurred
officially around A.D. 70 when the rabbis from Jamnia instituted an oath formula
which demanded the members of the local synagogues to curse Jesus of Nazareth.

B. Roman documents indicate that Emperor worship became a major conflict with
the church from the reigns of Nero (A.D. 54-68) to Domitian (A.D. 81-96).
However, there is no documentation of an official empire-wide persecution.
Apparently Revelation reflected the exuberance of local Emperor worship cults in
the Eastern Provinces of the Roman Empire (cf. “Biblical Archaeology Review,”
May/June 1993 p. 29-37).

VI. THE SYNTAX

A. There are many grammatical problems in the Greek text.

B. Some possible reasons for these problems

1. John’s Aramaic thought patterns.

2. He had no scribe on Patmos to write for him.

3. The excitement of the visions was overwhelming.

4. They are purposeful for the effect.

5. The genre (apocalyptic) was highly figurative.

C. Similar grammatical idiosyncrasies are found in other Jewish apocalyptic
writings. Therefore, Revelation is not written in a poor grammatical style, but
in a genre with grammatical distinctives.

VII. CANONICITY

A. It was rejected early by the Eastern Church; the book does not appear in
the Peshitta (fifth century Syriac version).

B. In the early fourth century Eusebius, following Dionysius of Alexandria in
the late third century, said Revelation was not written by the Apostle John. He
listed it as one of the “disputed” books but included it in his canonical list
(cf.
Ecclesiastical History, III:24:18; III:25:4; and III:39:6).

C. The Council of Laodicea (about A.D. 360) omitted it from the list of
canonical books. Jerome rejected it as canonical, but the Council of Carthage
(A.D. 397) included it. Revelation was admitted by means of a compromise by
which both Hebrews and Revelation were accepted into the church’s canon.

D. We should acknowledge that it is a faith presupposition of believers that
the Holy Spirit guided the historical process of developing a Christian canon.

E. The two major theologians of the Protestant Reformation rejected its place
in Christian doctrine

1. Martin Luther called it neither prophetic or apostolic, in essence
rejecting its inspiration.

2. John Calvin, who wrote a commentary on every book of the NT except
Revelation, in essence is rejecting its relevance.

VIII. HISTORICAL THEORIES OF INTERPRETATION

A. It has been notoriously difficult to interpret; therefore, dogmatism is
inappropriate!

B. The symbols are drawn from

1. Old Testament apocalyptic passages in

a. Daniel

b. Ezekiel

c. Zechariah

d. Isaiah

2. intertestamental Jewish apocalyptic literature

3. the first century Greco-Roman historical setting (especially Revelation
17)

4. ancient near eastern mythological creation accounts (especially Revelation
12)

C. In general there are four interpretive grids or presuppositions

1. PRETERIST – this group sees the book as primarily or exclusively related
to the first century churches in the Roman Province of Asia. All the details and
prophecies were fulfilled in the first century.

2. HISTORICIST – this group sees the book as an overview of history,
primarily of Western civilization and in some sense the Roman Catholic Church.
Often the letters to the seven churches of chapters 2 and 3 are used as a
description of certain periods of time. Some see these as temporally synchronous
and others as chronologically sequential.

3. FUTURIST – this group sees the book as referring to the events immediately
preceding and following the Parousia (Second Coming of Christ) which will be
literally and historically fulfilled.

4. IDEALIST – this group sees the book as totally symbolic of the struggle
between good and evil which has no historical references.

All of these have some validity, but they miss the intentional ambiguity of
John’s choice of genre and imagery. The problem is balance, not which one is
correct

IX. PURPOSE OF THE BOOK

A. The purpose of Revelation is to show God’s sovereignty in history and the
promise of the culmination of all things in Him. The faithful are to remain in
faith and hope amidst the persecution and aggression of this fallen world
system. The focus of the book is the persecution (Emperor worship in the eastern
provinces) and faithfulness (false teachers and cultural compromise) of
believers in the first century and in every century (cf. 2:10). Remember,
prophets spoke of the future in an effort to reform the present. Revelation is
not only about how it will end, but how it is going. In his article in The
Expositors Bible Commentary, Vol. I entitled, “The Eschatology of the
Bible,” Robert L. Sancy said, “the biblical prophets were not concerned
primarily with the time and chronological arrangement of future events. For them
the spiritual state of their contemporaries was the point of importance and the
great eschatological visitation of God for the judgment of unrighteousness and
the blessing of the pious was interjected for its ethical impact in the present”
(p. 104).

B. The general purpose is summed up well in the brief introduction to the TEV
and NJB translations

1. TEV, p. 1122, “The Revelation to John was written at a time when
Christians were being persecuted because of their faith in Jesus Christ as Lord.
The writer’s main concern is to give his readers hope and encouragement, and to
urge them to remain faithful during times of suffering and persecution.”

2. NJB, p. 1416, “The Bible is summed up in the message of hope and the rich
symbolism of this book. It is a vision of rescue from the trials which beset
God’s people, and a promise of a glorious future. The message is expressed by
means of imagery which draws on the whole of the Bible, so that every feature,
animals, colors, numbers, is evocative and full of overtones to a reader
familiar with the OT. In this way it is a secret and allusive revelation of what
is to come, though the natural symbolism of the great acts of worship and the
final vision of the messianic splendor of the new Holy City are clear enough.
There was a tradition of such writing in Judaism from Daniel onwards, to
strengthen God’s people in persecution with assurance of eventual deliverance
and triumph.”

C. It is crucial that the interpreter give the redemptive theme priority.

1. God has brought individual, corporate, and cosmic salvation through
Christ.

2. God’s redemption is both spiritual and physical. The Church is saved, but
not safe! One day She will be!

3. God still loves fallen, rebellious, self-centered humanity. The wrath of
God in the seals and trumpets is for redemption (cf. 9:20-21; 14:6-7; 16:9,11;
21:7; 22:17).

4. God not only restores fallen mankind, but also fallen creation (cf. Rom.
8:18-25). Evil at every level will be purged!

The recurrent attempt by God to reach lost humanity with the gospel magnifies
the gracious character of God. The bowl judgments are the result of recalcitrant
evil, not an unloving God. God only judges and isolates evil when it refuses
again and again to repent. The book ends in a gospel invitation (cf. 22:17).

D. This book must not be seen as a chronological chart of
the events, times, and manner of the Second Coming. It has often been
interpreted as the “secret” to western history (the seven churches seen as
ages). Every generation has forced its histories into the apocalyptic symbols;
every one has been wrong so far.

The details of these prophecies will be much more obvious to the last
generation of believers suffering under the Anti-Christ. A literal
interpretation has caused this book to be ignored by some (Calvin), depreciated
by others (Luther, “neither apostolic nor prophetic”), and overemphasized by
others (millennialists).

X. BOB’S KEYS TO INTERPRETATION

A. We need to take into account the OT aspect

1. OT apocalyptic genre is a highly symbolic literary type

2. Numerous allusions are drawn from the OT (some estimate that of 404 verses
275 include allusions to OT texts); the meaning of these symbols have been
reinterpreted in light of the first-century Roman situation.

3. Prophetic foreshadowing takes current events to foreshadow eschatological
events. Often these first- century historical fulfillments point to ultimate
end-time historical fulfillments.

B. The overall structure of the book helps us to see the author’s purpose

1. The seals, trumpets, and bowls cover basically the same period of time
(chapters 6-16). Revelation is a drama in sequential acts.

2. It is possible that chapters 17-19 are parallel to 20-22. Parts of chapter
19 (i.e. 19:11-21) are recapitulated in 20:7-10.

3. See the seven literary units at Opening Statements, C.

C. The historical context must be taken into account in any interpretation of
the book

1. The presence of Emperor worship

2. Local persecution in the Eastern Provinces

3. The Bible cannot mean what it never meant. The interpretation of
Revelation must be related to John’s day first. It may have multiple
fulfillments or applications, but they must be grounded in the first century.

D. The meaning of some of the cryptic terms has been lost to us due to our
cultural, linguistic and existential setting. Possibly the end-time events
themselves will shed light on the proper interpretation of these symbols. Be
careful not to push all of the details of this apocalyptic drama. Modern
interpreters must seek the major truth in each of these visions.

E. Let me summarize some of the key interpretive elements

1. The historical origins of the symbolism

a. OT themes, OT allusions

b. Ancient Near Eastern mythology

c. Intertestamental apocalyptic literature

d. Greco-Roman first century setting

2. The author’s ways of defining his symbolism

a. Conversations with angelic guides

b. The hymn of heavenly choirs

c. Author himself states the meaning

3. The structure of the book (dramatic parallelism)

F. Further help

1. My two favorite commentators on Revelation are George Eldon Ladd and Alan
F. Johnson. They do not agree. There is so much disagreement among godly,
educated, sincere scholars that a word of caution is appropriate. Let me quote
Alan Johnson in his
Commentary on Revelation from Zondervan:

“In view of the elaborate use of imagery and visions from 4:1 through the end
of Revelation and the question how this material relates to chapters 1-3, it is
not surprising that commentators differ widely in their treatment of these
chapters. One problem is that of interpretation: What do the imagery and
visions mean? Another problem involves chronology: When do these things
take place? Furthermore, does John interpret his frequent Old Testament images
in exact accordance with their Old Testament sources, or does he freely
reinterpret these images? What is symbolic and what is literal? Answers to such
questions will determine the interpreter’s approach. Since few of these
questions are capable of dogmatic answers, there is a need for tolerance of
divergent approaches in the hope that the Spirit may use open-minded discussion
to lead us further into the meaning of the Apocalypse” (p. 69).

2. For a general introduction to Revelation’s relationship to the OT, I
recommend John P. Milton’s Prophecy Interpreted
and John Bright’s The Authority of the Old Testament. For a good
discussion of Revelation’s relationship to Paul, I recommend James S. Stewart’s
A Man In Christ.

XI. TERMS AND PHRASES TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “the things which must soon take place,” 1:1,3

2. “coming with the clouds,” 1:7

3. Amen, 1:7

4. “the Alpha and the Omega,” 1:8

5. “out of the mouth came a sharp two-edged sword,” 1:16

6. “the keys of death and Hades,” 1:18

7. “you have left your first love,” 2:4

8. “to him who overcomes,” 2:7

9. “the tree of life in the Paradise of God,” 2:7

10. “a synagogue of Satan,” 2:9; 3:9

11. “the second death,” 2:11

12. “the deep things of Satan,” 2:24

13. “the book of life,” 3:5

14. “the key of David,” 3:7

15. new Jerusalem, 3:12

16. “I was in the Spirit,” 4:2

17. a sea of glass, 4:6

18. a book, 5:1

19. seven seals, 5:1

20. “a Lamb standing as if slain,” 5:6

21. “seven horns and seven eyes,” 5:6

22. “the great tribulation,” 7:14

23. “a golden censer,” 8:3

24. “the bottomless pit,” 9:2

25. Hallelujah, 19:1

26. “the marriage supper of the Lamb,” 19:9

27. “the winepress of God’s wrath,” 19:15

28. “bound him a thousand years,” 20:2

29. new Jerusalem, 21:2

30. “the bright morning star,” 22:16

XII. PERSONS TO BRIEFLY IDENTIFY

1. “communicated by His angel,” 1:1

2. John, 1:1

3. “the seven spirits,” 1:4

4. the Almighty, 1:8

5. Who is described in 1:12-16?

Where does this description come from?

6. Nicolaitans, 2:6,15

7. Jezebel, 2:20

8. elders, 4:4,10

9. the Lion that is from the tribe of Judah, 5:5

10. “a white horse, and he who sat on it had a bow,” 6:2

11. “underneath the altar the souls of those who had been slain,” 6:9

12. “sealed. . .on their foreheads,” 7:3

13. “a great multitude,” 7:9

14. “a star from heaven,” 9:1

15. “another strong angel,” 10:1

16. “the two witnesses,” 11:3

17. a woman, 12:1

18. “a great red dragon,” 12:3

19. “a son, a male child,” 12:5

20. “a beast coming up out of the sea,” 13:1

21. “another beast coming up out of the earth,” 13:11

22. Babylon, 14:8

23. the great harlot, 17:1

24. “a white horse, and he who sat on it,” 19:11

25. Gog and Magog, 20:8

XIII. MAP LOCATIONS TO PLOT

1. Patmos, 1:9

2. Ephesus, 1:11

3. Smyrna, 1:11

4. Pergamum, 1:11

5. Thyatira, 1:11

6. Sardis, 1:11

7. Philadelphia, 1:11

8. Laodicea, 1:11

9. Mount Zion, 14:1

XIV. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What kind of genre is Revelation? List the characteristics.

2. Why are there seven churches mentioned in chapters 2 and 3?

3. Why will all the tribes of the earth mourn over Him? (1:7)

4. List all the “sevens” in chapter 1

5. What does it mean that Jesus will remove a church’s lampstand? (2:5)

6. List the common items found in the message to each of the seven churches.

7. What is the setting for chapters 4-5?

8. What is the relationship between the seven seals, the seven trumpets, and
the seven bowls?

9. Who are the seven horsemen of chapter 6? Where does this imagery come
from?

10. Who are the 144,000? Why are the Jewish tribes listed incorrectly?

11. Why do the judgments increase from 1/4 in the seals to 1/3 in the
trumpets, to complete destruction in the bowls?

12. Who does the army of 200,000,000 refer to in 9:13-19?

13. Describe the war in heaven in 12:7-10.

14. Why does God allow the beast to make war against the saints? (13:7)

15. How does the beast mimic Christ?

16. Who will be a part of the first resurrection? (2:4-6) Who will be a part
of the second resurrection?

17. What is the significance of 22:3?

18. How is 22:5 related to 20:4?

19. Explain 22:18-19 in your own words.

20. What is the central theme of Revelation?